GCSE Biology 9-1 AQA Higher

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• Drop add water layers epidermal tissue place slide
• Dna cell dividing chromosomes visible long strings b4
• Circular dna cell plasmids replicate bigger strands move
• Ciliary muscles contract slackening suspensory ligaments lens fat
• Cililary muscles relax allowing suspensory ligaments pull tight
• Blood clots infections expensive nhs uncomfortable experience limit
• Long waiting list chance rejection immunosuppresion drugs complications
• Work expensive times eggs stimulated resulting unexpected multiple
• Side light shoot tip exposed auxin accumulates shade
• Shoots auxin gravity grows sideways produces unequal distribution
• Lower root growing sideways auxin side growth inhibited
• Petri light dishes put cress seeds lined moist
• Petri roots place seedlings damp cotton wool dish
• Cell chromosomes pairs copy line centre pulled duplicates
• Lead implies people genetic problems undesirable creating prejudice
• Stop helps suffering treating disorders costs nhs money
• Select breed stronger existing stock characteristics offspring continue
• Reduced gene pool humans allowed cloned lot die
• Organism leaving fossils cast formed buried soft material
• Archaea  bacteria eukaryota three-domain system subdivided smaller groups
• Level intensity moisture light temperature carbon dioxide plants
• Predators arriving competition pathogens food availability biotic factors
• Temperature oxygen availbility water availibility decay number organisms
• Discs plate agar zone antibiotics place plastic soaked
• Sugar solutions cylinder measure range mass cut potato
• Solution tube starch boiling ph place drop iodine
• Food filter piece break pestle mortar transfer ground
• Sample solution tube make food transfer 5cm test
• Sample 2cm food solution tube purple prepare transfer
• Test sudan iii sample stain solution tube prepare
• Blood atria flows pulmonary contract ventricles vena cava
• Tested drug human cells tissues test live preclinical
• Drug tested healthy dose group results volunteers making
• Cell lymphocytes make hybridoma antibody stimulate mouse combined
• Hcg stick antibodies test zone urine attached present
• Glucose making storing respiration celluose amino acids combining
• Glucose broken molecules make respiration transfer energy joined
• Nucleus contains genetic information control activites cell
• Cytoplasm a gel-like substance where most chemical reactions occur
• Living things made of cells all
• Cells be prokrayotic or eukrayotic can either
• Eukrayotic include all plant animal cells
• Eukaryotes organisms that are made eukrayotic cells
• Prokaryote is a prokaryotic cell unicelluar
• Cytoplasm contains enzymes control chemical reactions to
• Cell membrane's job hold and control substance flow
• Mitochondria where most reactions aerobic respiration place
• Respiration transfers energy that cells work
• Ribosomes where proteins made are
• Cell wall's made of celluose are
• Cell wall's job to support strengthen
• Permanent vacuole contains cell sap weak sugar salt solution
• Chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs contains chlorophyll to absorb sunlight light needed
• Plasmids are a small ring dna
• Light microscopes use light lenses form images specimen magnify
• Light microscopes see large subcelluar structures
• Electron microscopes use electrons form image
• Microscopes electron higher magnification resolution::2 points compared light
• Resolution is the ability distinguish points
• Electron microscopes see small subcelluar structures chloroplasts ribosomes
• Magnification = (image size)/(real size
• Differentiation is process cell specilalised job
• Cells differentiate they develop subcelluar structures turn types allowing
• Differentiation occurs as organisms develop most
• Plant cells lose ability to differentiate
• Cells undifferentiated called stem are
• Dna function sperm to get male female
• Sperm long tail streamlined head swim egg
• Sperm cells lots mitrochondria provide energy swim
• Sperm cells have enzymes head digest egg membrane
• Nerve cells function to carry electrical signals body
• Nerve cells are long branched connections ends connect form
• Muscle cell function to contract quickly movement
• Muscle cells long room contract
• Muscle cells contain mitrochondria generate energy needed contraction
• Root hair cells role absorb water minerals
• Root hair cells found surface
• Root hair cells grow into "long giving plants big
• Phloem xylem tubes role to transport substances plant
• End form tubes phloem xylem cells are long joined
• Xylem cells are hollow centre phloem have very subcelluar structures
• Chromosomes are coiled dna molecules up
• Chromosome carries large number genes each
• Genes control characteristics
• Body cells have two copies chromosome  mother father
• Bacteria cultured a culture medium are
• Culture medium be nutrient broth solution agar jelly
• Agar make plate, hot jelly poured petri dishes
• Inoculating loops to transfer microorganisms culture medium
• Sterile dropping pipette spreader to get covering bacteria
• School labs microorganism cultures aren't kept o c harmful
• Industrial conditions microorganism cultures incubated temperatures higher o c to
• Petri dish culture medium be sterilised kill unwanted microorganisms 
• Inoculating loop sterilised by passiting hot flame
• Petri dish lightly taped stop microorganisms air coming
• Petri dish be stored upside stop condensation falling agar
• Conditions homeostasis the regulation inside body maintain stable enviroment
• Automatic control systems made components receptor coordination centre effector
• Automatic control systems regulate internal enviroment
• Automatic control systems include the hormonal nervous system::2 points
• Automatic control systems internal enviroments stable mechanism called negative
• Receptors detect a stimulus
• Coordination centres recieves processes information about stimulus receptors
• Effectors produce response from coordination centre
• Motor neurones are neurones carry electrical impulses cns effectors
• Effectors are all muscles glands respond nervous impulses
• Sensory neurones carry information electrical impulses receptor cns
• Synapse is a connection neurones the
• Nerve signals transferred by chemicals move synapse set electrical
• Reflexes automatic responses stimuli involve conscious brain
• Reflex arc is the passage information
• Neurones relay connect sensory motor to
• Main parts cns are the spinal chord brain
• Brain controls complex behaviour
• Brain made of billions connected neurons
• Cerebral cortex responsible for things consciousness intelligence memory language
• Medulla controls unconcious activities e.g breathing heartbeat
• Cerebellum responsible muscle coordination is
• Brain complexity delicacy makes investigating treating disorders difficult
• Part brain damaged effect damage tells you what
• Brain observing parts stimulated electrically idea of what
• Mri scanners are machines produce detailed picture brain's structure
• Scientists mri scans find out  areas brain active
• Sclera is the tough supporting wall eye
• Cornea is the transparent outer layer front eye refracts
• Iris contains muscles to control diameter pupil
• Lens focuses light retina the onto
• Retina contains receptive cells sensitive light intensity colour
• Shape lens controlled by the ciliary muscles suspensory ligaments
• Optic nerve carries impulses receptors retina brain
• Making muscles light receptors eye detect bright light, a
• Making muscles light receptors detect dim light, a reflex
• Eating foods carbohydrates causes a rise blood glucose
• Humans excess glucose stored as glycogen liver muscles
• Blood glucose controlled by the pancreas::organ
• Hyperopia is the medical term long-sightedness
• Hyperopia occurs when lens wrong shape refract light eyeball
• Hyperopia images objects brought focus behind retina
• Myopia is the medical term short-sightedness
• Myopia occurs when the lens wrong shape refracts light
• Myopia distant objects brought focus in front retina
• Hyperopia treated using a convex lens which refracts light rays
• Myopia treated using a concave lens light rays focus
• Lenses contact are thin sit surface eye shaped to compenstate
• Slimming cornea makes it powerful improve myopia
• Lens eye replacement surgery involves removing natural replacing
• Thermoregulatory centre contains receptors sensitive temperature blood
• Hot bloods vessel dilate blood flows close skins surface
• Cold bloods vessel constrict flows close skins surface
• Hormones are chemical messengers secreted blood glands affecting target
• Hormones effects tend be long lasting::duration
• Glands hormones made secreted called endocrine
• Ovaries produce oestrogen the
• Tetes produces testosterone the
• Thyroid produces thyroxine the
• Thyroxine involved regulating metabolism rate heart temperature
• Adrenal gland produces adrenaline
• Pancreas produces hormones insulin glucagon
• Pituitary gland produces hormones regulate body conditions act hormones
• Insulin causes glucose move liver muscle cells reducing blood
• Glucagon causes liver convert glycogen glucose release
• Vigorous exercise removes glucose blood from
• Type diabetes is where pancreas produces little/no insulin
• People type diabetes need insulin therapy injections insulin day
• People type diabetes limit intake food rich simple sugars
• Type diabetes where a person resistant insulin
• Type diabetes controlled by eating carbohydrate-controlled diet regular exercise
• Filtration substances are filtered blood passes kidneys
• Selective reabsorption where useful substances glucose ions water amount
• Kidneys make urine by taking waste products blood
• Ammonia converted into urea liver because it's toxic
• Ammonia produced waste product of deamination
• Stored proteins excess amino acids are converted fats carbohydrates
• Water cells can damage having too
• Ion amount regulated by kidneys is
• Lose water uncontrollably from skin sweat lungs breath
• Water balanced by amount consume amount removed kidneys urine
• Concentration urine controlled by anti-diuretic hormone released pituitary gland
• Kidney's work properly, waste products build blood lose ability
• Kidney people failure alive by kidney dialysis transplant
• Dialysis regularly to keep concentrations dissolved substances blood normal
• Kidney cure failure is a transplant
• Donor donate organs person died to be register carry
• Puberty body starts releasing sex hormones trigger secondary sexual characteristics
• Testosterone stimulates sperm production
• Oestrogen involved in menstrual cycle is
• Fsh causes ovaries produce oestrogen egg mature follicle
• Lh stimulates release egg day of
• Oestrogen causes lining uterus grow half cycle stimulates release
• Progesterone maintains lining uterus half cycle inhibits lh fsh
• Oestrogen contraceptives to inhibit fsh preventing release egg
• Production oestrogen everyday, fsh inhibited egg development stop
• Progesterone reduces fertility by stimulating production thick mucus preventing
• Combined pill oral contraceptive containing oestrogen progesterone
• Pill is 99 effective doesn't protect stds
• Pills progesterone-only as effective combined with fewer side effects
• Patch contraceptive oestrogen progesterone stuck skin lasts a week
• Contraceptive implant inserted under skin the
• Contraceptive implants release continuous amounts progesterone stopping ovaries releasing
• Contraceptive implants for 3 years can
• Contraceptive injection contains progesterone doses lasting for 2 months
• Devices intrauterine t-shaped inserted uterus to kill sperm prevent
• Plastic iuds release progesterone
• Copper iuds prevent sperm surviving
• Barrier contraceptives are non-hormonal designed stop sperm egg
• Condoms are barrier methods contraceptiion prevent sperm entering vagina
• Characteristics affected by the enviroment can
• Diaphragm contraceptive is a shallow plastic cup fits cervix
• Spermicide's effectivenesss is 70-80 with diaphragm so
• Sterilisation involves cutting/tying fallopian tubes sperm duct
• Abstinence is not sexual intercourse having
• Methods natural preventing fertilisation is avoiding intercourse woman fertile
• Hormones fsh lh drug to increase fertility stimulate ovulation
• Specialised micro-tools increasing fertility developed to use eggs sperm
• Time-lapse imaging means embryos continuously monitored identify embryos result
• Process ivf results in unused embryos destroyed people unethical
• Genetic testing embryos implantation raises ethical issues as people
• Adrenaline released by adrenal glands is
• Adrenaline releaded response to stressful scary situations
• Adrenaline prepares body fight flight by triggering mechanisms increase
• Thyroxine regulates basal metabolism rate protein synthesis
• Level normal negative feedback system is when body detects
• Thyroxine released by thyroid is
• Thyroxine released response to tsh thyroid stimulating hormone
• Auxin is a plant hormone controls growth tips shoots
• Plant responding light is phototropism to
• Plants responding gravity is geotropism to
• Auxin produced in the tips plants
• Auxin stimulates cell elongation by moving backwards shoots
• Extra auxin promotes growth shoots inhibits growth roots
• Dormacy when seeds germinate conditions is
• Seeds treated gibberelin alter dormacy meaning they germinate times
• Plants treated gibberelin they'll flower if
• Gibberellin grow bigger flowers plants can
• Weeds growing fields crops lawns are broad-leved
• Selective weedkillers developed with auxins kill broad-leafed plants by disrupting growth
• Cutting is part plant cut a
• Stick cutting soil add rooting powder, they'll produce roots
• Rooting powder contains auxins
• Rooting powder enables growers to rapidly produce clones desired
• Growth gibberellin plant hormone stimulates seed germination stem flowering
• Plants ethene is a gas produced aging parts
• Ethene stimulates enzymes fruit ripen
• Comercially ethene to speed ripening fruits
• Chemicals ripening delayed fruit storage by adding block ethene's
• Dna is the chemical genetic material cell made
• Dna found nucleus animal plant cells structures called chromosomes
• Dna's structure a polymer made strands coiled shape double
• Gene is a small section dna found chromosomes
• Gene codes for particular sequence amino acids put make
• Amino acids synthesise proteins make up thousands
• Genes cells what order put amino acids
• Dna determines what proteins cells produce keratin haemoglobin
• Genome is the entire set genetic material
• Complete human genome been worked scientists
• Dna made repeating units called nucleotides
• Nucleotide consists of one sugar molecule phosphate base
• Backbone dna strand formed by a sugar phosphate molecule
• Bases are a g c t
• Pairs complementary base pairing, a t c g
• Order bases gene decides the amino acids protein
• Amino acids coded by a sequence bases gene
• Non-coding parts dna can switch genes control expressed
• Proteins made in the cytoplasm ribosome
• Ribosomes synthesise proteins it uses code dna
• Dna carried ribosomes using mrna made copying code dna::2
• Mrna acts as a messenger dna ribosome
• Amino acids carried ribosomes by carrier molecules
• Mutation is a random change organism's dna
• Mutations cause sequence dna bases gene to change
• Mutations produce a genetic varient
• Mutations the protein cells make sometimes
• Mutation non-coding dna could alter expressed
• Base deletions when a random deleted dna sequence
• Base insertions where a inserted dna sequence
• Base substitution mutations are when random dna sequence changed
• Sexual reproduction where genetic information organisms combined produce offspring
• Humans gamete contains 23 chromosomes in
• Gametes parents form make a cell chromosomes
• Flower sperm is pollen
• Asexual reproduction, there's parent genetically identical parent::parents
• Asexual reproduction occurs by mitosis
• Offsprings asexual reproduction as a clone
• Gametes multiply by meiosis
• Meiosis occurs in ovaries testes and
• Gametes fused fertilisation cell begins divide mitosis produce
• Variation increases chance species surviving a change enviroment
• Selective breeding speeds up natural selection
• Asexual reproduction uses less energy than sexual organisms find mate
• Asexual reproduction is faster sexual reproduction 
• Malaria reproduces sexually mosquitos asexually human host
• Fungi reproduce sexually when faced unfavourable condition variation survival
• Spores reproduce sexually asexually can and
• Are 23 pairs chromosomes human body cell
• Human body cells chromosome pairs control characteristics and the
• 23rd pair chromosomes labelled either xy xx
• Xx means female combination female characteristics develop
• Xy means male male characteristics develop
• Meiosis chance sperm drawing x y chromosome is 50
• Genes exist versions called alleles all
• Organism alleles chromosome homozygous if
• Organism alleles chromosome heterozygous if
• Phenotype is the combinations alleles determine characteristics
• Cystic fibrosis caused by a recessive allele
• Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder cell membrane results
• Allele cystic fibrosis carried by 1/25 people
• Polydactyl caused by a dominant allele
• Polydactyl is a genetic disorder baby's born extra fingers
• Chance offspring polydactyly if one parent d allele
• Testing embryonic is when cell removed embryo implantation genetic
• Genetic disorders detected by embryonic screening
• Gregor mendel noted how characteristics plants passed generation
• Mendel's results foundation of modern genetics
• Research mendel concluded characteristics plants determined hereditary units passed
• Mendel's work criticised as there knowledge genes dna chromosomes
• Variation is a form different of
• Variation types are genetic enviromental the
• Combining genes alleles causes genetic variation
• Theory evolution that all today's species evolved simple life
• Darwin explain why characteristics appeared passed adaptions offspring lack
• Extinction is when individuals species remain
• Darwins theory controversial as it common belief creator lack
• Lamarack argued that changes organism acquires lifetime passed offspring
• Hypothesis lamarack's rejected as experiments support
• Darwins theory evolution supported by the discovery genetics
• Selective breeding when humans make plants/animals breed genes characteristics
• Agriculture selective breeding improves yield in
• Selective breeding for thousands years has
• Selective breeding reduces gene pool
• Interbreeding when animals/plants closely related bred
• Interbreeding health problems higher chance inheriting harmful genetic
• Characteristic idea genetic engineering is transferring gene responsible organism's
• Tissue culture plant cells put growth medium hormones
• Tissue culture benefits are they grow fast space::2 points
• Tissue culture scientists to preserve rare plants nurseries produce
• Plant parent cutting cloning when gardners good produce genetically
• Biomass the mass living material is
• Cloning to help preserve endangered species greater understanding embryo
• Amber tar pits there's no oxygen moisture microbes survive
• Glaciers cold for decay microbes work
• Peat bogs acidic for decay microbes
• Life hypotheses origin supported disproved because many early forms
• Species is a group similar organisms reproduce give fertile
• Speciation is the development species of
• Isolation is when populations species seperated barrier
• Isolation speciation as conditions side barrier characteristics common population
• Alfred russel wallace idea of natural selection
• Alfred russle wallace's famous observation realized warning colours
• Bacteria randomly mutate to become resistant antibiotics
• Bacteria evolve quickly due to their reproduction speed
• Superbugs are bacteria resistant common antibiotics
• Mrsa is a superbug affects people hospital 
• Antibiotic resistance common as they're overused inappropriately
• Drug companies development speed with the amount antibiotic resistant
• Agriculture overuse antibiotics cause animals develop antibiotic-resistant bacterium spread
• Carl woese proposed three-domain system found species thought
• Archaea are primitive bacteria
• Binominal system organism given a part latin genus species
• Part binonimal system refers to the genus organism belongs
• Part binominal system refers species
• Binominal system effective worldwide scientists countires speak languages
• Evolutionary trees show how scientists species related
• Work evolutionary relationships scientists analyse current classifcation data fossil
• Habitat is a place organism lives
• Population is all organisms species living habitat
• Community is the populations species living habitat
• Factors abiotic are non-living enviroment of
• Factors biotic are living enviroment of
• Ecosystem is the interaction community living organisms non-living parts
• Plants compete for light space water nutrients soil::4 points
• Animals compete for space food water mates::4 points
• Interpendance when an organism depends species thing's requires
• Abiotic/biotic factors can affect the size populations community
• Structural adaptations are features organism's body structure
• Behavioural adaptations are the ways organisms behave e.g species
• Functional adaptations are things inside organism's body related processes
• Extremophiles are microorganisms adapted live extreme conditions
• Food chain starts with a producer
• Producer produces glucose to make molecules called biomass 
• Organisms food chain, energy transferred living ecosystem eat
• Consumers that hunt kill predators and
• Population prey increases stable community predators limited by  the
• Predator-prey cycles phase as it takes respond
• Organisms responsible decomposition bacteria fungi detritus feeders::3
• Fuel biogas is a made methane burned
• Biogas made in a simple fermenter called digester generator
• Make biogas, microorganisms decay plant animal waste anaerobically producing
• Sludge waste make biogas large scale
• Biogas stored liquid so it straight requires pressure
• Batch generators make biogas in small loaded manually waste::quantity
• Continuous generators make biogas time waste continuously fed
• Biodiversity is the variety species organisms earth ecosystem
• High biodiversity important ensures that ecosystems stable lots species
• Lots human actions reducing biodiversity of
• Spike human population 19th century due to modern medicine
• Chemicals sewage toxic industry can pollute lakes rivers oceans
• Smoke acidic gases released atmosphere can pollute air e.g
• Urea removed blood in kidneys is
• Urine produced in the kidneys is
• Adh causes kidney tubules permeable water absorbed blood
• Differentiation process which a cell specialist
• Human stem cells found in early embryos bone marrow
• Cells adult stem only turn blood
• Stem cells exciting doctors medical researchers because they potential
• Medicine stem cells treat conditions diabetes paralysis
• Therapeutic cloning needed as stem cells rejected made genes
• Labs stem cells potential risk of being contaminated virus
• Tissue plant meristem is plant differentiate type cell throught
• Stem cells human embryos reproduced by cloning
• Disagree stem cells human embroys as every embryo potential
• Identical plants stem cells clone quickly cheaply prevent
• Substances move cells across the membrane diffusion
• Diffusion is the spreading particles resulting net movement area
• Cells substances transported diffusion are oxygen carbon dioxide gas
• Faster higher temperature diffusion rate as particles energy move
• Bigger concentration gradient faster diffusion rate 
• Larger surface area faster diffusion rate as more particles
• Water moves cell membranes by osmosis
• Solution osmosis is the diffusion water dilute concentrated paritally
• Lamellae have a thin surface layer cells minimise distance
• Flows fish countercurrent where blood lamellae direction water opposite
• Cells the basic building blocks living organisms
• Active transport is the movement substances dilute solution concenetrated
• Active transport requires energy respiration from
• Plants active transport allows mineral ions absorbed root hairs
• Plants require ions for healthy growth
• Body active transport allows sugar molecules absorbed lower concentrations
• Sugar molecules for cell respiration are
• Single cell has sufficent transport molecules cell meet as they
• Exchange surfaces adapted maximum effectiveness by having thin membrane
• Humans gas exchange takes place the alveoli
• Alveoli specialised maximise effectiveness as the big surface area
• Surface villi adapted exchanging materials as it increases area
• Stomata is tiny holes surface leaves
• Plants oxygen water diffuse out leaf stomata
• Plants carbon dioxide diffuse into leaf through stomata
• Flattened shape leaf increases the area exchange effective
• Air spaces inside leaf increase the area surface chance
• Stomata size controlled by guard cells
• Gills are the gas exchange surface fish
• Water diffuses enters fish mouth passes gills oxygen
• Gills made filaments give a big surface area gas
• Gill filaments covered in lamealle increase surface area more::2
• Lamellae lots of blood capillaries speed diffusion
• Tissue is a group cells similar structure function
• Organs are aggregations tissues performing specific functions
• Organs organised into organ systems work form organisms
• Enzymes are biological catalysts
• Catalyst is a substance increases speed reaction changed uped
• Enzymes all proteins made chains amino acids
• Enzymes active site is a unique shape made bind
• Enzymes denature, their active site shape substrate longer fit
• Enzyme hot will denature if an
• Ph high low, the interfers bonds holding enzyme denatures
• Starch proteins broken they're too big pass walls digestive
• Carbohydrases convert carbohydrates simple sugars into
• Proteases convert proteins into amino acids
• Lipases convert lipids into glycerol fatty acids
• Amylase carbohydrase breaks starch maltose
• Amylases made in the salivary glands pancreas small intestine::3
• Proteases made in the stomach pancreas small intestine::3 places
• Lipases made in the pancreas small intestine::2 places
• Products digestion to build carbohydrates lipids proteins glucose repsiration::2
• Bile made in liver stored in gall bladder
• Hydrochloric acid produced stomach to kill bacteria give ph
• Protease pepsin produced the stomach the is
• Small intestine bile to make conditions alkaline neutralising hydrochloric
• Bile makes digestion faster emulsifies fats breaking droplets
• Large intestine's job to absorb excess water food
• Pancreas produces protease amylase carbohydrases releasing into the small intestine
• Small intestine produces protease amylase lipase complete digestion
• Small intestine where digested food absorbed digestive system blood
• Rectum where faeces stored passing anus
• Muscular tissue stomach to churn food
• Bronchi split progressively smaller tubes called bronchioles
• Bronchioles end at alveoli
• Lungs located in the thorax the
• Air inhaled through the trachea splits into two tubes called
• Lungs surrounded by pleral membranes are
• Breaths number minute of per
• Heart is an organ pumps blood body double circulatory
• Circulatory system the ventricle pumps dexoygeneated blood lungs returns
• Circulatory system left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood organs body
• Coronary arteries are arteries branch aorta supply surrounding heart
• Walls heart made of muscle tissue
• Heart valves make sure blood flows direction backwards
• Natural resting heart rate controlled by a group cells
• Cells pacemaker produce a small electric impulse spreads surrounding
• Artifical pacemaker correct irregularities heart rate
• Body blood vessels arteries capillaries veins
• Arteries carry blood heart high pressure
• Blood pumps high pressure artery walls are muscular elastic::2
• Hole middle blood vessel called the lumen
• Artery walls thick layers muscle to make strong elastic
• Arteries branch capillaries into
• Capillaries exchange substances between cells
• Capillaries have permeable walls so substances flow
• Capillary walls cell thick so increase diffusion rate decreasing
• Capillaries join form veins up to
• Veins walls thick arteries as the pressure lower
• Veins bigger lumen arteries to allow blood flow low
• Veins contain valves prevent blood backflow due low pressure
• Blood is a tissue consiting plasma red cells white
• Cells red blood carry oxygen to all body
• Red blood cells shape biconcave give it a large
• Red blood cells nucleus to carry oxygen
• Lungs haemoglobin binds oxygen oxyhaemoglobin to
• White blood cells defend against infection
• Phagocytosis white blood cells change shape engulf unwelcome
• White blood cells produce antibodies fight micoorganisms antitoxins neutralise
• Platelets are small fragments cells of
• Platelets help blood clot wound preventing blood loss infection
• Lack platelets excessive bleeding of
• Plasma is a straw coloured liquid carrying bloods constituents
• Heart coronary reducing disease when layers fatty material build
• Coronary heart disease cause mydocardical infarction attack
• Stents are tubes inserted inside arteries keeping open making
• Stents decrease risk of myocardical infarction people coronary heart
• Risk stents risky as there complications operation infection surgery
• Blood thrombosis is the formation clot inside vessel obsturcts
• Statins reduce ldl cholestral blood slows rate fatty material
• Statins advantages are reduces ldl cholestral increases hdl studies
• Statins disadvantages are it's long term drug regularly negative
• Artifical hearts to keep patients alive whilst waiting aheart
• Heart case failure doctors may transplant body donor organs
• Blood artifical case of major loss
• Artifical blood a blood subsitute e.g saline
• Health state physical mental wellbeing
• Diseases major of ill health are
• Factors profound effect physical mental health are diet stress
• Defects immune system increased risk of suffering infectious diseases
• Viruses living cells trigger cancer in
• Immune reactions initially caused pathogen trigger allergies skin rashes
• Sever physical ill health lead to depression mental illnesses
• Diseases communicable are infectious
• Non-communicable diseases are those spread people animals
• Risk factors are things linked increase likelihood person develop
• Diseases caused by the interaction number factors
• Obesity risk factor for type diabetes
• Risk factors cardiovascular disease are diet smoking exercise
• Lung disease cancer caused smoking
• Unborn babies damaged by smoking drinking::2 points
• Cancer directly caused by exposure substances called carcinogens including
• Cancer uncontrolled growth divison cells forming tumours
• Benign tumours are growths abnormal cells contained area membrane
• Malignant tumour cells are cancerous spreading neighbouring tissues spread
• Risk factors cancer are smoking obesity uv exposure viral
• Susceptible cancer by genetics sometimes you
• Epidermal tissue cover plant covered waxy cuticle helping
• Palisade mesophyll tissue is is part plant photosynthesis occurs
• Xylem phloem transport water mineral ions food plant
• Meristem found at the growing tips shoots roots
• Palisade layer plants have lots chloroplasts top light::2 points
• Upper epidermis plant transparent so light pass palisade layer
• Air spaces spongy mesophyll tissue increase the rate of diffusion
• Lower epidermis full stomata the
• Phloem tubes made columns of elongated living cells small
• Phloem tubes transport food substances leaves rest plant storage
• Translocation is the movement food plant
• End xylem tubes made of dead cells joined wall
• Xylem tubes carry water mineral ions roots stem leaves
• Transpiration stream is the movement water roots xylem leaves
• Transpiration is the loss water plant
• Transpiration caused evaporation diffusion water plants surface occurs
• Transpiration rate faster light intensity higher as stomata begin
• Transpiration rate faster warmer as water particles energy evaporate
• Air water transpiration rate faster flow greater as the
• Low plant transpiration rate faster humidity as the concentration
• Guard cells are cells role open close stomata
• Plant lots water guard cells fill plump turgid causing
• Water plant cell short guard lose flaccid making
• Walls guard cells open close correctly as they thin
• Guard cells sensititve to light are
• Stomata found lower surface as it's cooler water lost
• Pathogens are microorganisms enter body disease
• Cells bacteria are very small reproduce rapidly produce toxins
• Cells viruses are pathogens live inside replicate machinery produce
• Viruses disease by causing cells burst lysis exiting releasing
• Protists are single-celled eukrayotes disease which
• Protists are parasites damage organisms living
• Protists transferred organisms by vectors disease
• Fungi bodies made of hyphae single celled
• Hyphae grow penetrate human skin surface plants causing disease
• Hyphae produce spores spread plants animals
• Airborne pathogens are carried air be inhaled droplets produced sneezing
• Mealses a viral disease::type pathogen is
• Measle symptoms are fever red skin rash
• Measles illness potentially fatal young children are vaccinated
• Measles virus spread by inhalation droplets sneezes coughs
• Hiv initally causes a flu-like illness
• Hiv successfully controlled antiretroviral drugs virus will attack body's
• Late stage hiv infection aids occurs when the body's
• Hiv spread by sexual contact exchange body fluids e.g. such
• Tobacco mosaic virus symptoms distinctive pattern discoluration affects
• Salmonella is spread bacteria ingested food prepared unhygienic conditions
• Uk poultry vaccinated against salmonella contorlling spread
• Salmonella toxins secretes causes fever abdominal cramps vomiting diarrhoea::4
• Gonorrhea is a std caused bacterium
• Gonorrhoea symptoms are a thick yellow green discharge vagina
• Gonorrhoea spread by sexual contact controlled antibiotics barrier method
• Malaria caused by a protist is
• Spread malaria controlled by preventing mosquitos breeding nets avoid
• Skin defends pathogens by acting barrier secreting antimicrobial substances
• Hair mucus nose traps particles pathogens
• Trachea brocnhi secrete mucus to trap pathogens
• Trachea bronchi lined cilia which waft mucus back throat
• Cells phagocytosis is when white blood engulf foreign digest
• Invading pathogen has unique antigens surface
• Cells lymthocytes foreign antigen, they produce antibodies lock invading
• Antitoxins to counteract toxins produced invading bacteria
• Pathogen infected white blood cells will produce antibodies rapidly
• Vaccinations involve injecting small amounts dead inactive pathogens carrying
• Pathogen previously vaccinated appeared white blood cells can rapidly
• Pros vaccinations are helped control communicable diseases common helps
• Disadvantages vaccines are they work bad reaction
• Antibiotics medicines cure bacterial disease killing infective bacteria
• Painkillers drugs that treat symptoms diseases kill pathogens
• Difficult develop drugs kill viruses without also damaging body
• Bacteria mutate become resistant antibiotics to
• Heart drug digitalis orignates from foxgloves
• Asprin originates from willow
• Penicillin discovered alexander fleming from the penicillium mould
• Traditionally drugs extracted plants microorganisms
• Drugs synthesised by chemists most new
• Identification plant disease made by reference gardening manual/website testing
• Plants stunted growth caused by nitrate deficency
• Double blind tests so doctors subconsciously influenced knowledge monitoring
• Treatment placebo effect is where patient expects work feels
• Antibodies monoclonal produced from a single clone cells identical
• Hormone called hcg found in the urine pregnant women
• Cancer cells antigens called tumour markers
• Drug anti-cancer attached to monoclonal antibodies specific tumour markers
• Labs monoclonal antibodies to target specific cells test blood
• Antibodies specific molecule dye monoclonal find cell tissue
• Monoclonal antibodies cause more side effects expected
• Monoclonal antibodies aren't as widely hoped
• Leaves plant diseases detected by stunted growth spots areas
• Chlorosis lack chlorophyll caused by magnesium ion deficiency
• Waxy cuticle prevents infection by providing barrier pathogens
• Cell walls made celluose prevent disease by forming barrier
• Plants layer dead cells stems prevent disease by providing
• Plants produce antibacterial chemicals kill bacteria e.g mint witch
• Plants produce poisons deter herbivores can
• Plants thorns hairs stop animals eating touching
• Plants leaves droop curl touches so they prevent eaten
• Plants trick animals using mimicry can
• Aerobic respiration is respiration oxygen using
• Anaerobic respiration humans occurs when there's oxygen
• Anaerobic efficent aerobic respiration as glucose fully oxidised
• Anaerobic respiration yeast cells called fermentation
• Drinks food industry fementation make bread alcholic
• Exercise human body reacts to the increased demand energy
• Breathing exercise supply muscles oxygenated blood, the heart rate
• Build lactic acid anaerobic respiration creates an oxygen debt
• Long periods vigorous activity muscles fatigued stop contracting
• Rid oxygen debt, blood flowing muscles transports lactic acid
• Oxygen debt is the amount extra body exercise react
• Photosynthesis energy transferred from enviroment light chloroplasts endothermic
• Warm bright enough, co limiting factor
• Rate photosynthesis affected by light intensity  concentration temperature chlorophyll
• Enzymes photosynthesis denatures around 45ºc for
• Light intensity inversely proportional to distance inverse square law
• Common artifically create ideal enviroment plants is to grow
• Greenhouses to trap sun's heat temperature's limiting factor
• Plants sun commercial farmers supply with artifical sunlight give
• Greenhouses protect plants from pests diseases enclosed
• Greenhouses cost lot money so it's important economically worth
• Respiration is the process transferring energy glucose cell
• Respiration is exothermic::exo/endo
• Sum reactions happen cell body are metabolism
• Ways organisms energy transferred respiration are to build larger
• Diaphgrams with spermicide increase effectiveness are
• O aerobic respiration c h 6o 6co 6h
• Anaerobic respiration muscle cells glucose lactic acid
• Anaerobic respiration plant yeast cells glucose ethanol carbon
• O photosynthesis 6co 6h c h 6o
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