AQA A Level Biology

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• Fascicle bundle muscle fibres what
• Longer mrna trna what is
• B lymphocytes mature bone marrow
• Bases pyramidines cytosine thymine which
• Bases purines pure silver ag adenine guanine
• End dna strand carbon deoxyribose unattached nucleotide
• End dna molecule carbon deoxyribose unattached nucleotide
• Purines nitrogenous difference pyramidines ring point pyramid
• Advantage purines binding pyamidines molecule width stable
• End strand dna anti-parallel advantage upside relative side
• Advantage mutation variation evolution occur
• Sequence define gene dna bases  codes amino acid
• Dna degenerate code amino acids coded for  one 
• Stop codon trna molecule complementary anticodon translation polypeptide
• Prokaryotes eukaryotes differences eukaryotic prokaryotic dna linear circular
• Chromosomes form dna associates histone proteins dna-histone complex
• Chromosomes visible mitosis when are
• Define homologous pair chromosomes  genes alleles parent
• Define allele alternative form gene
• Numbers unknown haploid diploid represented organisms chromosomes n
• Dna h bonds forms strand describe replication helicase
• Developing strand direction specific nucleotide end dna polymerase
• Define codon sequence mrna bases  codes amino acid
• Define genome complete set genes cell including mitochondria/chloroplasts
• Nucleic acid single strand rna
• Shape mrna linear single helix
• Shape trna clover-leaf single strand
• Dna bonds rna nucleotides c g forms describe
• Neurone reflex arc stimulus receptor sensory relay motor
• Mechanoreceptors detect pressure what do
• Group cells receptor a can
• Type receptor parcinian corpuscle mechanoreceptor
• Pacinian corpuscle found skin joints
• Potential generator pressure na+ greater na established parcinian
• Rods rhodopsin photoreceptor protein membrane disks opsin
• Photoreceptor protein membrane disks cones iodopsin
• Types cones iodopsin detect wavelengths light
• Bipolar neurone describe photoreception rods rhodopsin breaks low
• Bipolar neurone describe photoreception cones iodopsin breaks high
• Rhodopsin colour dark low light intensity rods breaks
• Rod cells found periphery retina
• Cone cells found fovea where
• Cone cells concentrated fovea highest light intensity
• Synapse neurons impulses rods cones passed bipolar neurones
• Explain bleaching break rhodopsin iodopsin response light resynthesised
• Bipolar neurone explain convergence individual cone cell synapses
• Rod potential sensitive convergence summation means release neurotransmitter
• Light stimulated visual ascuity worse low environments rods
• Types neurones sensory receptor inter motor effector
• Myelin sheath electrical insulation speeds impulses protects axon
• Myelin sheath made schwann cell membranes
• Nodes ranvier gaps schwann cells myelin sheath
• Muscle list parts skeletal decreasing order size fascicle
• K+ ions na+ permeable resting potential established atpase
• Resting membrane potential mv what
• Na+ k+ channels voltage gated opens diffuses potential
• Action threshold potential generated level depolarisation size stimulus
• Stimulus size impulses neurones detected larger generated time 
• Na+ voltage gated channels leads influx depolarisation membrane
• Action conduction potential propagated myelinated axon jump adjacent
• Factors affect speed conductance myelin sheath axon diameter
• Diameter speed conductance axon affect greater faster leakage
• Temperature rate conductance kinetic energy affect greater faster
• Action na+ refractory period potential channels closed influx
• Refractory period ensures action potentials propagated important direction
• Na+ action potential presynaptic ca2+ channels open membrane
• Describe axon convergence presynaptic neurones synapse postsynaptic
• Describe temporal summation presynaptic neurone repeatedly releases neurotransmitter
• Spatial summation presynaptic neurones  release neurotransmitter exceed threshold
• Kind synapse cholinergic excitatory what
• Cl channels k+ diffuses action potential inhibitory synapse
• Antagonistic muscle action work pairs  contract opposite directions
• Muscle fibre cells fused what
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium store covering muscle fibres
• Thin filament called actin ac
• Thick filament called myosin sin thicc
• Myofibrils striated alternating bands amounts actin(light myosin dark
• I band actin what does
• Band actin myosin a what
• Darkest band which is the
• H zone myosin heinz mayoinnaise
• Z lines centre i band mark end sarcomere
• Acetylcholine na+ ca2+ channels open diffuses sarcolemma neuromuscular
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum ca2+ depolarisation move tropomyosin actin muscle
• Myosin head actin atp binding site adp pi
• Band narrows sarcomere contraction actin myosin overlap z
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum ca2+ form longer muscle contraction action
• Species pioneer environment nutrients increases describe process primary
• Secondary succession land vegetation previously grown event removed
• Species diversity change climax community approached increases
• Biomass change climax community approached increases
• Maximum climax community seral stage stability composition biomass
• Succession series community composition increase stability
• Food dominant climax communities stable resist change web
• Greater increased ecosystem change succession abiotic environment support
• Secondary succession faster starting nutrients seeds soil alive
• Conservation carried managing/deflecting succession biodiversity lost ecosystems move
• Ion centre cholorophyll mg2+ what
• Chlorophyll types pigment chloroplasts b carotenids
• Photoionisation chlorophyll psii reaction centre absorbs light energy
• Photosystems psi  psii what are
• Electrons enter protein psii change positions h ionic
• 2e light energy absorbed psi reenergised returns h
• 2h+ photolysis products h2o 2e o2  oxidised chlorophyll
• Atp cyclic photophosphorylation ion channel coupled synthase chemiosmosis
• Products light-dependent reaction atp nadph
• Draw light independent reaction the
• Products cycle light independent reaction glucose nadp adp
• Glycolysis occur cytoplasm where does
• Products glycolysis pyruvate atp cell nadh oxidised oxidative
• Nad occurs oxygen present respiration o terminal e
• Anaerobic respiration reduces pyruvate nadh nad regenerated glycolysis
• Animal anaerobic respiration pyruvate lactate lactic acid
• Anaerobic respiration inefficient atp generated glucose
• Anaerobic respiration sustainable lactate ethanol toxic damage cells
• Types non-specific defence skin acts barrier pathogen entry
• Features non-specific defence pathogens fast
• Response types specific defence cell mediated humoral
• Lymphocyte type involved cell mediated response t
• Humoral b lymphocyte type involved response cells humour
• Phagocyte pathogen phagosome products phagocytosis work attracted chemotaxis
• Lymphocytes produced stem cells bone marrow
• T lymphocytes mature thymus gland
• T cells mitosis cytokines differentiate stimulate describe cell-mediated
• Cells cytotoxic t perforin holes membranes freely permeable
• Cell b specific complementary pathogen antigen receptor binds
• Cells rapidly memory responsible secondary immune response pathogen
• Primary immune response production antibodies memory cells pathogen
• Chains structure region describe antibody quaternary polypeptide heavy
• Antibodies fight pathogens agglutination clumps bacterial cells easily
• Identical monoclonal antibodies produced clones parent cell complementary
• Monoclonal antibodies diagnose diseases interaction antigens measure concentration
• Variable regions antibodies vary due change gene expression
• Passive immunity antibodies introduced source
• Examples passive immunity antibodies passing mother foetus placenta
• Features passive immunity direct contact pathogen memory cells
• Active immunity antibodies produced individual's immune system
• Features active immunity takes time develop direct contact
• Natural active immunity individual infected pathogen normal circumstances
• Artificial active immunity vaccination what
• Immune response describe vaccination dead inactive low dose
• Unvaccinated individuals vaccination protect herd immunity low probability
• Influenza successfully reinfect antigenic variability pathogen mutates quickly
• Retroviruses synthesise dna strands rna reverse transcriptase enzyme
• Reverse transcriptase catalyses production dna rna
• Hiv cell dna protein membrane replicate present blood
• Cells t decreases response explain symptoms aids number
• Antibody antigen slide unattached washed added binds enzyme
• Antibiotics penicillin work weaken bacterial cell walls burst
• Antibiotics work viruses inside cells walls metabolic mechanisms
• Bacterial cell walls made murein peptidoglycan
• Water xerophytes plants adapted low supply reducing rate
• Xerophyte adaptations work reducing water potential gradient rolled
• Water rolled leaves reduce loss trap vapour leaf
• Water hairs leaf reduce loss trap vapour smaller
• Water sunken stomata reduce loss trap vapour pits
• Water loss evaporation stomata diffusion lower by  xerophytes
• Water air evaporate stomata transpiration stream open diffuses
• Xylem water due molecules stick explain cohesion-tension system
• Source energy drives xylem transport sunlight
• Produced water uptake equal transpiration hydrolysis  photosynthesis respiration
• Due trunk diameter smaller day larger night stomata
• Transpiration water molecules air xylem stop pull relies
• Xylem tension pressure water leak cut air pulled
• Plants kind phloem found flowering
• Source site sugar production leaf
• Sink site sugar storage/use what
• Direction translocation occur what does
• Molecules translocated sucrose amino acids k cl po
• Faster diffusion translocation what is
• Cells companion sucrose enter phloem source facilitated diffusion
• Sucrose sink enter phloem companion cell actively transports
• Sucrose sieve tubes water hydrostatic pressure sink mass
• Sieve tubes adapted mass flow large continuous vacuole
• Large number active transport sucrose companion cells adapted
• Pressure phloem tension sap released cut
• Sucrose leaves increase evidence concentrations give mass flow
• Mass atp flow metabolic poisons inhibit
• Ring phloem tissue removed sucrose describe ringing experiment
• Phloem plant sugars film describe tracer experiment grown
• Blood pressure double circulatory system refer passes heart
• Atria thinner walls ventricles thicker muscle stronger contractions
• Left thicker muscle wall ventricle stronger contraction needed
• Valve side heart tricuspid tri rt
• Valve left side heart bicuspid
• Arteries transport blood cardiac muscle coronary
• Muscle coronary artery blocked cardiac deprived oxygen aerboic
• Blood valve pressure bicuspid la open lv semi-lunar
• Pocket-watch valves prevent backflow veins ensure skeletal muscle
• Cardiac equation output heart rate x stroke volume
• Volume calculate stroke graph left ventricle max minimum
• Heart rate calculate graph t period s
• Endothelium blood vessels smooth reduces friction
• Blood type vessel thickest muscle layer arterioles contract
• Blood ventricular pressure vessel type thickest elastic layer
• Pressure blood surges arterioles thinner elastic layer arteries
• Veins thin elastic layer low blood pressure
• Diffusion narrow capillaries adapted slow blood flow time
• Wbcs enter tissues spaces endothelial cells capillaries
• Tissue fluid hydrostatic pressure form ventricular systole generates
• Tissue fluid water hydrostatic pressure enters capillary gradient
• Lymph tissue fluid drains reenter capillaries lymphatic system
• Polypeptides describe quarternary structure haemoglobin globular α two β
• Secondary structure haemoglobin polypeptides  α helix
• O  molecules haemoglobin carry how
• O  bind blood fe  ion haemoglobin red cells
• Oxygen easily high affinity loads unloads
• Oxygen easily low affinity unloads loads
• Decrease o describe bohr effect dissolved forms carbonic
• Oxygen high  concentration load lungs o low affinity
• Oxygen low unload respiring tissue  produced aerobic respiration
• Haemoglobin sequence polypeptide structure vary species bases gene
• Inspiration expiration active which of
• Expiration inspiration passive which of
• Intercostal muscles effort external  e
• O  to bind fe shape curve partial pressure
• O affinity shifts direction  dissociation curve conditions higher
• O oxygen animal dissociation curve shifted left low
• O respiring tissue spiracles  diffuses diffusion gradient insects
• Respiring tissue spiracles diffusion gradient  removed insect  produced
• Diffusion shorter pathway tracheoles adapted highly branched higher
• Diffusion water muscles cells tracheoles change rate major
• Increases diffusion abdominal pumping trachae muscles contract  reduces
• Water evaporation reduces loss insects limit small sa:vol
• Large high mammals absorb remove volumes o  and
• Describe structure trachea muscle wall cartilage rings support
• Bronchioles muscle walls contract constrict control air flow
• Gas exhange surface lungs alveolar epithelium
• Alveoli collagen elastic fibres stretch recoil inspiration expiration
• Diffusion ventilation important maintains larger gradients o  and
• Shape diaphragm relaxed dome shaped pushed gut
• Intercostal muscles diaphragm thorax pressure describe inspiration external
• Moves diaphragm thorax pressure describe expiration external intercostal
• Oxygen enter blood diffuses alveolar epithelium capillary endothelium
• Diffusion larger surface area alveoli adapted gas exchange
• Diffusion capillaries maintains large gradient o  and lungs
• Aspects human gas exchange adapted diffusion lungs alveoli
• Thylakoid h lumen stroma higher lumen  igher t
• 2e nadp non-cyclic photophosphorylation  from chlorophyll reduce 2h
• Light reaction required atp dependent nadph gp tp
• Carbon atoms gp how many
• Carbon atoms tp how many
• Carbon atoms rup how many
• Carbon atoms rubp how many
• Draw glycolysis what happens in
• Draw reactions anaerobic respiration the
• Draw link reaction the
• Link reaction occur eukaryotes mitochondrial matrix
• Products link reaction pyruvate glucose acetyl coa nadh
• Decarboxylation occur link reaction pyruvate 3c acetate 2c
• Krebs cycle occur eukaryotes mitochondrial matrix
• Carbon atoms oxaloacetate how many
• Draw krebs cycle the
• 5c  released decarboxylation occur krebs cycle citrate 6c
• Atp generated krebs cycle substrate-level phosphorylation energy adp
• Atp generated glycolysis tp pyruvate 2adp 1pi 2atp
• Products krebs cycle acetyl coa glucose coenzyme atp
• Reduced form fad fadh what
• Reduced form nad nadh what
• Reduced form nadp nadph what
• Products oxidative phosphorylation nad fad h o atp
• Atp generated glucose aerobic respiration
• Atp generated glucose anaerobic respiration
• Oxidative phosphorylation occur cristae mitochondria
• Substrate level phosphorylation adp energy chemical reaction
• Coa equation link reaction pyruvate nad acetyl nadh
• Coenzymes carry hydrogen atoms molecules enzymes
• Acids intermediate compunds krebs cycle important synthesise substances
• Electron carrier complex mitochondrial i nadh donates nadh nad
• Electron carrier complex e mitochondrial iii energy  used
• Electron h mitochondrial o carrier complex iv energy
• Mitochondrial h atp matrix inter-membrane space energy membrane
• Energy levels electron carriers differ move released small
• Oxidative phosphorylation terminal acceptor hydrogen oxygen important respiration
• Intermembrane space mitochondrial h+ matrix high low
• Nad fad krebs cycle reduced nadh fadh carry
• Electron carrier complex fadh ii  donates fad pass
• Electron carrier complex atp synthesised nadh oxidative phosphorylation
• Electron carrier complex atp synthesised fadh oxidative phosphorylation
• Nadh oxidised oxidative phosphorylation glucose
• Fadh oxidised oxidative phosphorylation glucose
• Water molecules produced glucose oxidative phosphorylation
• O h water made oxidative phosphorylation carrier protein
• Image picture sem depth 3d
• Hydrolysis breaking bond water what
• Organelle shapes vary diagrams cut planes
• Amino acids translation inserted what
• Difference amino acids r group varies
• Dna type mutations effect exonic
• Rna polymerase forms phosphodiester bonds nucleotides condensation reactions
• Organelles staining contrast denser stain darker helps identify
• Zymogens inactive form enzymes what
• Gradient scenarios diffusion occur barrier concentration electrochemical
• Enzyme control experiments boiled what
• Key words enzymes specific complementary fit substrate
• Water closing stomata prevents loss evaporation maintains content
• Starch cellulose common c h o hydrogen bonding
• Water xylem tension walls higher light intensities stomata
• Gas exchange stomata closed occur gaps cells
• Bile lipids er lipase action salts emulsify small
• Chromosomes haploid number form homologous seperated pair daughter
• Active transport facilitated concentration diffusion atp gradient low
• Mrna trna binds codon ribosome complementary anticodon molecule
• Compare b answer questions aspect directly sentence er
• Problem independent variables valid comparison
• Draw graphs dot-to-dot curve how
• Specific enzyme names answer use
• Show effect x control affect results y change
• Non-polar polar  neutral charged and
• Avoid comparing molecule lengths mrna trna
• Key word xerophytes evaporation transpiration
• Area surface find flat irregular object place graph
• Phrase correlations x increases y decreases/increases
• Negative values lower/higher water potential xylem pressure
• Larger change easier record smaller percentage error/uncertainty
• Quantitative measures qualitative easily repeatable accurately
• Variable effects answer  evaluate questions positives negatives sample
• Representative sample important reliable why
• Stop changing independent variable dependent stopped increasing decreasing
• Standard deviation variation data the
• Respiration type oxygen aerobic  respiration
• More/less key words viruses replication cells destroyed
• Significant overlap difference error bars show standard deviation
• Patients experiment with placebo treatment cancer suffer unethical
• Random sample important biased reliable
• Reliable biased identify anomalies distribution uniform
• Quote data graphs/tables calculation from
• More/faster/less/fewer none/no specifically  use and
• Er  words use
• Secondary structure mark is going
• Measure scale bars arrows how
• Energy question talk respiration if
• Data significant greater |critical value|
• Find median list ascending order middle
• Lines fully aspects biological drawings solid single shading
• Assume chromosomes human haploid n diploid 2n
• Sample null hypothesis design experiment control large representative
• Large sample good representative reliable
• Small sample bad representative reliable
• Results unreliable small sample poorly controlled variables specific
• Data items ages/maturity metabolic rates
• Downside experiments wild conditions nature controlled vary prevent
• Choose variable control list factors affect dependent specific
• Data items prepared remove factors vary make comparison
• Gradient compare initial peaks lines graph trends/start values/end
• Calculate total errors/uncertainties?  add how
• Difference reading read measuring instrument measurement thermometer values
• Uncertainty range values the of
• Uncertainty reading smallest division measuring instrument
• Uncertainty measurement smallest division measuring instrument readings
• Percentage uncertainty measured what is
• Quantitative/numerical variable line graph independent dependent
• Scatter graph quantitative/numerical dependent variables
• Variable bar graph categoric qualitative independent quantitative/numerical dependent
• Cell bacteria membrane wall muscilagonous slime capsule
• Fungus cell walls made chitin chungus
• Milli units avoids decimal places measuring small values
• Mass measure volume accurate easier irregularly shaped objects
• Adding substance lead increase transport carrier proteins saturated
• Specimen pressed firmly cover slip ensures single layer
• Counting ensure accurate large sample size random representative
• Pulled opposite ends cell spindle fibres mitosis sister
• Respiration involved simply show process cooling freeze slows
• Calvin cycle place chloroplast stroma
• Key words place reduced oxidised
• Cell loses water shrivels crennelates rbcs
• Stable features climax community ecosystem support abiotic factors
• Keyword transport cell-membrane fluidity phosopholipid membrane
• Describe data trend highest  lowest exceptions comparison normal
• Stimulus detectable change internal external environment leads response
• Directional taxis response motile organism moves stimulus  movement
• Direction kinesis motile organism speed frequency changing response
• Tropism plant growth response directional stimulus positive phototropism
• Acid plant growth factor iaa indoleacetic indol acetic
• Type substance iaa auxin plant growth factor
• Iaa shoot side light shaded cells elongation positive
• Iaa root side lower cells gravity elongation positive
• Cell activates walls iaa elongation proton pump h
• Hoh draw structure of α-glucose ohh  bottom alpha
• Draw structure β-glucose ohh  hoh top beta
• Draw structure maltose the of
• Draw dipeptide r groups a
• Draw glycerol
• Draw triglyceride a
• Function gill lamellae increase surface area diffusion gas
• Flow gill lamellae countercurrent water opposite direction blood
• Benefit countercurrent flow maintains larger diffusion gradient oxygen
• Epithelial cell blood co-transport na  from concentration gradient
• Happened meiosis dna replication chromatids chromosome
• Virus host cell nucleic acid viral particles describe
• Form chromatids chromosomes bivalents alleles align equator pulled
• Meiosis variation introduced sexual reproduction independent assortment chromosomes
• Meiosis combinations independent assortment introduce variation random arrangement
• Chromatids crossing meiosis bivalent wrap alleles exchanged chiasmata
• Gamete n 2n random fertilisation introduce variation male
• Copies chromosome non-disjunction meiosis homologous sister chromatids fail
• Stages mitosis prophase metaphase anaphase telophase pmat
• Happened mitosis dna replication chromosome sister chromatids
• Describe prophase chromatin condenses chromosomes nuclear envelope breaks
• Spindle fibres describe metaphase form animals extend centrioles
• Describe anaphase centromeres divide sister chromatids pulled opposite
• Describe telophase spindle apparatus breaks nuclear envelopes form
• Mitosis division nuclei what is
• Cytokinesis division cytoplasm cells what
• Furrow cytokinesis occur animals division forms plane equator
• Cell form plate middle lamella cytokinesis occur plants
• Cells produced mitosis growth repair identical tissue continue
• Cells undergoing mitosis mitotic index ratio population measure
• Time mitosis stage measured number cells population proportional
• Chemotherapy fights cancer disrupting mitosis prevents dna replication
• Dna cell molecules circular membrane plasmids describe binary
• Myogenic cardaic muscle initiates contractions relaxations
• Sa node upper wall atrium
• Atrial walls systole occur sa node generates action
• Atria prevents ventricles function non-conductive fibrous tissue wave
• Wave depolarisation avn ventricle walls ensures ventricular systole
• Heart rate blood ph impulses  concentration increases dissolved  forms
• Heart nerve cardio acceleratory centre increases rate sympathetic
• Cardio inhibitory centre decreases heart rate parasympathetic nerve
• Chemoreceptors affecting heart rate found carotid arteries aortic
• Baroreceptors affecting heart rate found carotid arteries aortic
• Blood pressure impulses increases baroreceptors aortic arch carotid
• Blood pressure impulses decreases baroreceptors aortic arch carotid
• Cell zymogens needed prevent hydrolysis digestion protect tissue
• Cells chemotherapy effective fast dividing cancer hair follicle
• Acetylcholine diffuses synapse acetylcholinesterase synaptic cleft breaks actetyl
• Population group individuals  species occupying habitat time potentially
• Community populations species ecosystem time
• Give biotic factors competition predation
• Niche develop adaptations abiotic biotic factors
• Habitat place organism lives what
• Abiotic factors physical affecting ecosystem
• Organism consumer obtains energy eating
• Producer organism synthesises complex organic molecules inorganic ions
• Organism niche role fits ecosystem including habitat behaviour
• Individuals resource competition occur multiple require insufficent meet
• Species competitive niche exclusion principle occupy indefinitely advantage
• Population size predators prey decreases increases survive reproduce
• Quadrats sample slow-moving non-motile populations?  randomly belt transect
• Belt transect random placement quadrats gradual change community
• Number capture animals mark-release-recapture technique work mark release
• Method sample population motile organisms mark-release-recapture
• Sample rate marked:unmarked ratio population assumptions made mark-release-recapture
• Describing mutualism species what should
• Random quadrat sample 1m number divide area grid
• Genome sequencing humans identify differences dna base sequences
• Genome sequencing animals identify phylogenic relationships
• Genome proteome sequencing prokaryotes important identify antigens pathogens
• Dna easier determine proteome prokaryotes genome sequenced easily 
• Proteins harder determine proteome complex eukaryotes intronic dna
• Organic molecules decomposer breaks complex dead organisms simpler
• Energy enter ecosystem light sunlight atmospheric aquatic plants
• Biomass form sugars plants synthesised photosynthesis respiratory substrates
• Productivity rate production kg m year biomass mass
• Fatty lipases hydrolyse ester bonds form acids monoglycerides
• Mass biomass measured carbon  dry tissue  chemical energy
• Calorimetry estimate chemical energy store dry biomass
• Mass water sample heat energy change calorimetry burned
• Sunlight photosynthesis energy converted organic molecules reflected/absorbed atmosphere
• Gross primary production gpp chemical energy generated plants
• Net primary production npp chemical energy store plant
• Equation npp gpp r what
• Npp growth reproduction consumers herbivores trophic level decomposers
• Parts organism energy loss low proportion npp transferred
• Net production n i chemical energy equation consumers
• Water counted biomass release energy respiration
• Reducing productivity farm animals improved respiratory losses limit
• Ammonification saprobiontic ammonifying bacteria break amino acids urea
• Oxidise nitrite nitrification chemotrophic nitrifying bacteria ammonium nitrate
• Ammonia amino acids nitrogen forms n nitrogen-fixing bacteria
• Denitrification denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates nitrogen gas
• Bacteria nitrogen nitrifying denitrifying concentration soil water/oxygen content
• Nitrates important nitrogen-containing compound plants absorb
• Enzyme nitrogen-fixation affected oxygen nitrogenase effective low o
• Biological molecules phosphate dna rna atp phospholipids
• Phosphate function saprobionts cycle breaking dead material respiration
• Main source phosphate nature rocks
• Glucagon produced  α-cells islets langerhans pancreas
• Function mycorrhizae fungi increase surface area absorption minerals
• Mycorrizha mutualistic relationship types fungi plants
• Saprobiontic nutrition extracellular digestion enzymes secreted dead material
• Nutrient plants environment animals generally cycle absorbed eaten
• Fertilisers nitrate phosphate concentration lost farms plants harvested
• Ions animal material describe natural fertilisers organic dead
• Ions describe artificial fertilisers inorganic obtained rocks soluble
• Growth increase phosphate synthesise fertilisers productivity nitrate concentration
• Species fast growing fertilisers reduce diversity high nitrate
• Fertiliser ions leaching excessive rainwater dissolves soluble washed
• Die eutrophication increase nitrate ion concentration increased growth
• Phosphates rocks released soil/water weathering
• Phosphates organisms converted rock sedimentation
• Proteases found stomach small intestine
• Endopeptidases hydrolyse internal peptide bonds produce smaller polypeptides
• Exopeptidases hydrolyse peptide bonds terminal amino acids rest
• Type enzyme pepsin protease endopeptidase
• Dipeptidases found cell membranes ileum epithelial
• Optimum ph pepsin what is
• Protease found stomach pepsin what
• Proteases produced pancreas trypsin chromotrypsin endopeptidases secreted small
• Amino makes endopeptidases specific sequence acids tertiary structure
• Amylase produced salivary gland pancreas
• Disaccharidases found ileum epithileal cell membranes
• Lipases produced pancreas where are
• Cell membrane chylomicron lipids fatty acids monoglycerides bile
• Amylase pancreatic needed salivary denatured stomach acids continues
• Test lipids grind ethanol add water milky white
• Water heat reactions features make large latent vaporisation
• Bond forms monosaccharides glycosidic what
• Test reducing sugar heat benedict's solution colour change
• Solution heat benedict's colour test non-reducing sugar change
• Test starch add drops iodine solution sample colour
• Starch insoluble adapted function compact helical shape lots
• Glycogen insoluble faster adapted function compact lots stored
• Glycogen animals highly branched starch stored branching increases
• Straight cellulose chains branched are
• Chains strength grouped form cellulose sutiable function hydrogen
• Temperature maintaining stable core body important maintains optimum
• Ph maintaining stable blood important maintains optimum constant
• Blood glucose ensures maintaining stable concentration important sufficient
• Homeostasis mammals involve control systems maintain internal environment 
• Normal negative feedback work deviation point detected receptor
• Increases control adaptation homeostatic separate mechanisms involving negative
• Influx sodium ions deviation increase x y positive
• Insulin produced  β cells islets langerhans pancreas
• Glucose factors affect blood concentration absorption ileum due
• Glucose liver blood control glycogenesis glyogen glycogenolysis glycogen
• Glucose insulin concentration cell enzymes decrease blood β
• Glucose glucagon concentration converts protein kinase blood cells
• Glucose converts protein kinase adrenaline receptor activates adenylate
• Cells insulin target muscle adipose
• Cells glucagon target liver what
• Type diabetes autoimmune destruction of β cells islets langerhans
• Insulin receptors type diabetes no/fewer faulty/abnormal cells responsive
• Type diabetes managed insulin injections
• Type diabetes managed decreasing carbohydrate intake diet increasing
• Blood glucose concentration fall eat long time gluconeogenesis
• Colour charts bad matching subjective
• Osmoregulation control blood water potential
• Water blood potential adh increases cells decreases osmoreceptors
• Water blood potential decrease cells increases osmoreceptors hypothalamus detect
• Arteriole pores glomerular filtrate form afferent wider efferent
• Cells amplify gene in-vivo transfer vector transform bacterial
• Na epithelial blood diffusion lumen cells glucose water
• Cells active transport carrier proteins proximal convoluted tubule
• Descending ascending limb walls water difference loop henle
• Water limb potential ascending interstitial fluid osmosis moves
• Glucose high concentration filtrate present urine diabetes blood
• Counter-current water multiplier multiplier  ensures potential gradient present
• Organism species recombinant dna transferred
• Dna transgenic organisms produce proteins recombinant universal genetic
• Dna gene desired cut isolate strand polymerase complementary
• Ways amplify amount dna produced vitro pcr vivo
• Dna bonds free nucleotides pcr heated 95°c break
• Gene sticky ends plasmid cut restriction endonuclease complementary
• Bacterial cells recombinant transformation place plasmids solution ca
• Marker cells recombinant dna fragment gene identify bacterial
• Dna sequence added fragment  rna polymerase gene ensure
• Dna directly cut gene eukaryotic intronic
• Dna complementary base sequence allele probes locate specific
• Dna probes preventative medicine genetic screening identify alleles
• Dna vntrs variable number tandem repeats short base
• Dna separate gel compare genetic fingerprints cut restriction
• Genetic fingerprinting forensics  probability individuals vntrs low
• Determining genetic diagnosing inherited diseases breeding dna fingerprinting
• Results genetic screening medicine personalised alleles increase/decrease effects
• Genetic families informed children results screening counselling probability
• Gene functional alleles recombinant dna therapy inserted cells
• Cells downsides gene therapy illegal germline short-lived effect
• Pros gmos resistance draught/pests prevent famines/reduce hunger increased
• Cons gmos produce superweeds long-term effects unknown lead
• Sticky ends important complementary base sequences allowing hydrogen
• Genotype genetic constitution organism the
• Phenotype  the expression genotype  interaction environment
• Gene pool alleles individuals  population time
• Gene allele frequency pool the
• P q hardy-weinberg equations 2pq
• Population generation hardy-weinberg principle allele frequencies change large
• Random phenotypes vary mutation independent assortment chromosomes crossing
• Natural selection differences survival reproductive success due to 
• Phenotypes remains stabilising selection intermediate favoured extreme occurs
• Change directional selection extreme phenotype favoured environment pressure
• Change disruptive selection extreme phenotypes favoured environment pressure
• Evolution change allele frequencies population
• Populations gene selection alleles allopatric speciation geographically seperated
• Groups selection occurs gene act natural alleles species
• Random genetic drift change allele frequencies generations chance
• Small genetic drift important large allele frequencies populations
• Allele gene pool genetic drift important large populations
• Gene epistasis influences expression what
• Autosomal linkage loci genes chromosome
• Sex-linkage locus gene sex chromosome
• Ratios observed expected phenotypes competitive advantage making individuals
• Chi-squared determine expected observed frequencies categorical data significantly
• Draw structure phospholipid the of
• Biuret test add reagent colour change blue purple
• Advantage dna replication semi-conservative ensures genetic continuity generations
• Identify organisms accurately key how
• Data improve collection collect points graph accurate line
• Energy enzyme-substrate complex increase reaction rate reduces activation
• Diagnose aids number helper t cells symptoms
• Enzyme change effective tertiary structure active site shape
• Amino acid substitution greater affect change charge involved
• Selection pressures selective breeding enviromental natural human controlled
• Phospholipids soluble water are in
• Similarities phospholipids triglycerides ester bonds formed glycerol insoluble
• Phospholipids triglycerides fatty acids hydrophobic differences p phosphate
• Log scale large range numbers exponential growth easier
• Cells totipotent differentiate type body early stages mammalian
• Cell specialisation totipotent occur parts dna translated develpment
• Describe pluripotent cells differentiate types divide unlimited numbers
• Describe multipotent cells differentiate limited number types found
• Unipotent cells differentiate single type found mature mammals
• Cardiomyocytes heart form cardiac progenitor cells unipotent differentiate
• Cells pluripotent specific induced stem ipscs produced transcription
• Stem cells occur downsides ethical objections embryos immune
• Cross-bridge formation mark discussing atp
• Highest number graph peak mode
• Questions answer long recall back information read
• Draw measure graph absorbance axis concentration calibration curve
• Produce concentration solutions serial dilution
• Epigenetics heritable gene function base sequence dna
• Oestrogen binds receptor transcription describe role steroid hormone
• Dna methylation work methyl groups added inhibits binding
• Histones acetylation work acetyl groups added increased binding
• Methylation dna tumour suppressor rate decreases genes lead
• Acetylation rate increases proto-oncogenes lead cancer histones binding
• Describe benign tumours slow growth secondary form life
• Describe malignant tumours rapid growth secondary form life
• Proto-oncogenes code proteins stimulate cell division mitosis
• Tumour suppressor genes code proteins inhibit cell division
• Mutation proto-oncogene leads cancer mutates oncogene permanently switched
• Mutation cell tumour suppression genes leads cancer faulty/abnormal
• Excessive oestrogen lead cancer protooncogenes mutate oncogenes increases
• Phosphocreatine atp creatine pi phosphorylate work short term
• Aerobic respiration describe slow skeletal muscle fibres powerful
• Muscle describe fast fibres powerful contractions shorter period
• Atp energy for  synthesis macromolecules muscle contraction active
• Prokaryotes eukaryotes  prokaryotes membrane-bound dna murein cell differences
• Light require specimen parts describe optical microscopy vacuum
• Electron requires specimen beam parts describe transmission microscopy
• Electron image describe scanning microscopy requires vacuum live
• Cell fractionation steps broken organelles separated tissue cold
• Cells intact describe homogenisation broken homogeniser releasing organelles
• Centrifuge speed bottom supernatant describe ultracentrifugation separation organelles/proteins
• Interphase normal cell functions dna replication
• Stages cell cycle interphase prophase metaphase anaphase telophase
• Cholesterol cell membrane binds fatty acids reducing movement
• Antigen molecule cell surface recognised foreign leading immune
• Surface area metabolic rate volume ratio higher temperature
• Valve bicuspid closes opens idenitify valves points b
• Courtship behaviour important sexual reproduction ensures individuals species
• Rubisco catalyses production gp  and rubp
• Pyruvate enter mitochondrial matrix produced glycolysis cytoplasm actively
• Respiratory substrates glucose breakdown products amino acids lipids
• Mass water weighing solution dry counted varies preventing
• Determines binding site shape tertiary structure quarternary structure 
• Respiration produce atp advantages greater blood supply glucose
• Eyepiece graticule calculate measurements microscope randomly choose fields
• Base rna interference work sirna specific sequence  binds
• Explain conclusion incorrect data show correlation causation statistical
• Sterilise boiling water  kills bacteria prevents contamination competition
• Side leaf stomata lower surface
• Specific tertiary shape antibody antigen polypeptide subunits structures
• Acclimatise specific stabilises respiration rate 
• Gene broad topics biological molecules dna expression protein
• Identify reflex arc neurones involved
• Advantages reflexes protect body tissues damage escape predators
• Makes synapses unidirectional neurotransmitter made released pre-synaptic neurone
• Statistical error bars test mention
• Species pioneer answer succession questions increase diversity/richness identify
• Advantage mrna reverse transcriptase restriction endonuclease dna chromosome
• Transformed uv light fluorescence identify bacteria fluoresecence quickly
• Nm um mm m related 1000nm 1um 1000um
• Process nitrogenase nitrogen fixation what
• Denaturing enzyme slow reaction active site shape longer
• Mention talking enzymes active sites
• Main pieces information question stem answer
• Difference between α-glucose β-glucose position hydrogen hydroxyl groups carbon
• Aspects choosing temperature experiment sufficient kinetic energy denature
• Offspring parent ratio inheritance questions genotype gametes produced
• Cells/organisms gene marker recombinant plasmid transgenic transformed identified
• Allele selection due mutation pressure answer natural questions
• Atp light reaction glucose pyruvate photosynthesis respiration questions
• Inheritance questions observed ratios similar expected
• Methodology mark-release-recapture affect ratio marked:unmarked individuals population
• Add slide prepare microscope drop water glass obtain
• Transmission electron microsope view internal structure organelles high
• Variable control controlled independent effect dependent
• Sample dry weigh intervals drying mass constant
• Organism viewing sample microscope chemical stop reactions happening
• Important control preparing organism samples volume shape surface
• Tonoplast membrane vacuole the what
• Shake tubes beetroot discs solution maintain diffusion gradient
• Agar bunsen burner aseptic technique lit flame neck
• Extract pigment leaf grind extraction solvent mortar pestle
• Test tube left lid chromatography saturate air solvent
• Control end point experiment dyes make colour standard
• Anomolous result repeat experiment condition check repeated
• Bunsen burner petri dish describe aspects aseptic technique
• Tube o  absorbed aerobic respiration volume decreases pressure
• Essay sentence writable gcse student layperson
• Sentence topic essay relate title proteins haemoglobin globular
• State specification that you are
• Describe resolution higher lower worse
• Advantages asexual reproduction fewer stages quicker parent involved
• Advantage sexual reproduction increases genetic diversity greater chance
• Site non-competitive inhibitor bind allosteric active
• Sds/error bars conclude data significant mention overlap
• Hydrogen bonds dna hold strands strength/stability
• Mention discussing translation ribosomes what
• Haemoglobin equation oxygen saturation oxygenated maximum
• Ensures rapid oxygen positive co-operativity haemoglobin intake lungs
• Variable nutrients dependent plant grown sand experiment provided
• Organic heat material 100c burn compounds
• Cross cell membrane dipeptidases disaccharidases dipeptides/disaccharides dipeptidases/disaccharidases hydrolyse
• Cdna dna make mrna reverse transcriptase produced polymerase
• Molecules move electrophoresis separated size charge larger slowly
• Population dies extinct what should
• Genome sequencing constantly improving is
• Lines graph compare describe you
• Comparing lines graph makes compare initial final rates
• Percentage increase greater can be
• Resistance selection advantageous allele provide to one pressure process
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