AP Biology Complete Deck

This flashcard deck covers fundamental biology topics including bioenergetics and cellular structures such as ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, lysosomes, vacuoles, and chloroplasts. It addresses concepts of cellular transport, membrane potential, osmosis, and osmoregulation. It also includes information on genetics and heredity, Mendelian laws, and genetic information transfer. Cellular responses and animal behaviors are highlighted, including signaling, communication, innate and learned behaviors, and cooperation for survival and reproductive success. Finally, the deck emphasizes adaptation and natural selection as mechanisms promoting homeostasis and the continuity of life.

Este mazo de tarjetas cubre temas fundamentales de biología, incluyendo la bioenergía y estructuras celulares como ribosomas, retículo endoplásmico, mitocondrias, lisosomas, vacuolas y cloroplastos. Aborda conceptos sobre transporte celular, potencial de membrana, osmosis y regulación osmótica. También incluye información sobre genética y herencia, leyes de Mendel, y transmisión de información genética. Se destacan respuestas celulares y comportamientos animales, incluyendo señales, comunicación, comportamientos innatos y aprendidos, y cooperación para la supervivencia y éxito reproductivo. Finalmente, el mazo resalta la adaptación y selección natural como mecanismos que favorecen la homeostasis y la continuidad de la vida.

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• Living systems energy stored chemical bonds
• Ribosomes synthesize proteins mrna sequence
• Rough er ribosomes attached membrane compartmentalizes cell packages
• Mitochondria double membrane forming folds called cristae
• Vacuoles membrane-bound sacs store water molecules increasing turgor
• Chloroplasts photosynthesis capture energy sun produce sugar
• Thylakoids organized stacks called grana
• Stroma fluid located chloroplast membrane
• Electron transport atp synthesis occur mitochondrial membrane
• Complex cellular structures increase surface area
• Size organisms affects rate heat exchange environment
• Phospholipids hydrophillic hydrophobic regions have
• Na k  atpase maintains membrane potential
• Water flows hypotonic side hypertonic
• Ψ water potential w = ψ p r
• Osmoregulation maintains water balance organisms control internal solute
• Smooth er attached ribosomes functions include detoxification lipid
• Living cells genome ribosomes providing evidence common ancestry
• Endoplasmic reticulum network membrane tubes cytoplasm inside eukaryotic
• Lysosomes membrane-enclosed sacs hydrolytic enzymes digest variety materials
• Mitochondria functions generating atp energy cell
• Increases folding membranes chloroplast mitochondria theor surface area
• Smaller cells higher surface area-to-volume ratio efficient exchange
• Organisms obtain evolved highly efficient strategies nutrients eliminate
• Cell membranes consist structural framework phospholipid molecules embedded
• Metabolic energy atp required active transport molecules and/or
• Water areas solute moves osmosis high potential/low osmolarity/low
• Constant ψ s icrt i ionization c molar
• Phosphorous build nucleic acids lipids
• Genetic information transferred cells during cell division
• Controlled genes coordinately groups factor
• Water open container potential pure
• Law segregation accounts ratio mendel observed f2 generation crosses
• Examples cellular response include growth secretion gene expression
• Organisms respond environment behavioral physiological
• Animals communicate variety reasons dominance find food establish
• Signals visual audible tacticle electrical chemical
• Learned behaviors developed result experience
• Aposematism sign marking behaviors chemical animal warns potential
• Natural selection favors behaviors increase survival populations
• Organisms respond environment maintain homeostasis increases survivability
• Metabolic rate amount energy expended animal unit time
• Generally smaller organism higher metabolic rate
• Open system pressure potential in
• Producing lot offpsring energy-efficient offspring
• Trophic level position organism occupies food chain
• Energy net gain results storage growth
• Loss net energy results body mass eventually death
• Food chain shows direction nutrient energy transfer organism
• Food webs consist interconnected chains
• Capture energy autotrophs environment heterotrophs carbon compounds produced
• Heterotrophs metabolize carbohydrates lipids proteins sources energy hydrolysis
• Species adaptations aid survival energy availability changes.  storage
• Population growth equation $$]\frac{dn}{dt b d[/$$
• Reproduction constraints results exponential growth population
• Growth exponential $$]\frac{dn}{dt r max}n[/$$ $]r max}[/$ maximum
• Carrying capacity maximum number individuals environment sustain
• Logistic growth $$]\frac{dn}{dt r max}n(\frac{k-n}{k})[/$$ k carrying capacity
• Community group species living location interacting
• Trophic cascade addition removal key species cascading effects
• Diverse ecosystems resilient environment diversity stabilizes ecosystems.  vulnerable
• Producers essential biodiversity feed/shelter populations reduce erosion
• Predators diverse prey keystone array populations control.  dominant
• Producers feed populations predators prey control
• Species invasive non-native which harms community introduced
• Newly introduced invasive species exploit niche outcompete organisms
• Crossing interchange genes chiasma homologs occurs prophase i
• Gametes random fertilization occurs male female fuse create
• Cell target receiving signal the
• Cells communication short-distance due sending local regulators facilitate
• Signal transduction pathways link reception cellular responses
• Stages cell communicaiton reception transduction response
• Signaling cascades relay signals receptors cell targets amplifying
• Ligand binds intracellular domain receptor protein shape initiating
• Meiosis ensures formation haploid gamete cells sexually reproducing
• Haploid n means set chromosomes.  gametes sex cells
• Sexual reproduction haploid gamete cells produce diploid
• Meiosis meiosis rounds division i ii
• Prophase i nuclear envelope disappears fibers begin form
• Align double chromosomes metaphase i fibers center cell
• Anaphase i fibers separate chromosome pairs
• Meiosis end i ii daughter cells haploid genetically
• Prophase ii nuclear envelope disappears fibers begin form
• Anaphase ii fibers separate sister chromatids
• Step cell communication transduction convert signal form bring
• Step cell communication response specific cellular signal molecule
• Signaling cascades relay amplify signals
• Secondary messengers molecules relay amplify intracellular signal
• Phosphorylation cascade signaling pathway enzyme phosphorylates causing amplification
• Bacteria quorum sensing release signals neighboring detect population
• Apoptosis programmed cell death is
• Mutations domain receptor protein component signal pathway affect
• Chemicals change structure signaling pathway changing function activating
• Feedback maintains homeostasis
• Negative feedback cell condition deviates homeostasis returns system
• Main phases cell cycle interphase m-phase
• Cell division essential growth tissue repair asexual reproduction
• Steps mitosis prophase metaphase anaphase telophase cytokinesis
• Cell enter g0 stage longer divides reenter cycle
• Metaphase fibers align chromosomes center cell
• Mitosis fibers connect centromeres pull chromosomes anaphase
• Checkpoints regulate progression cell cycle
• Disruptions cell cycle result cancer and/or apoptosis
• Extinction mass requires rate group organisms greater background
• M-spindle checkpoint checks chromosomes fiber attached
• Concentration cell cyclins proteins fluctuate specific phases cycle
• Dna rarely rna primary source hereditary material
• Genetic information stored sequence bases dna rna
• Viruses rna molecules encode genetic information
• G guanine c cytosine adenine t thymine u
• Plasmids small extra-chromosomal circular dna molecules present prokyaryotic
• Dna strand replication semiconservative means original completely synthesized
• Runs dna strands antiparallel meaning comlement
• Helicase unwinds dna strands
• Topoisomerase relaxes supercoil replication fork
• Rna polymerase synthesizes mrna direction reading template
• Ribosomes main types rna molecules mrna carries genetic
• Strand template referred noncoding minus antisense
• Exons splicing retaining mrna transcript.  primary alternative process
• Translation mrna generates polypeptides of
• Ribosomes translation occurs cytosolic rough endoplasmic reticulum eukaryotes
• Translation main steps initiation elongation termination
• Trna reads mrna rrna adds amino acids growing
• Translation initiated rrna interacts mrna start codon
• Naturally occuring amino acids there
• Start codon aug codes amino acid methionine
• Histones proteins wrap dna loose tight coils
• Modifications packing chemical histones tight loose chromatin regulates
• Transcription factors proteins promote inhibit gene
• Transcription factors determine cell differentiates
• Operator dna sequence inhibits promotes transcription binding regulatory
• Sickle cell disease result substitution mutation
• Errors dna mutations caused replication repair radiation reactive
• Mutations create phenotypes often new
• Transformation uptake naked dna e.g plasmids
• Transduction transmission genetic information virus host
• Related viruses combine genetic information infect host cell
• Samples polymerase chain reaction scientists create large dna
• Dna nucleotides sequencing scientists determine order molecule.  process
• Water polar due electronegativity h o
• Bond region hydrogen weak interaction h positive n
• Living systems constant input energy grow reproduce maintain
• Carbon build biological macromolecules is
• Proteins related function transcribed controlled transcription factors
• Groups genes controlled transcription factors order coordinately regulate
• Promoters dna sequences upstream transcription start site rna
• Cells amount water maintain normal plants turgid structure
• Requires compartmentalization minimizes competing interactions.  instance lysosome high
• Cell loss cellular compartments membranes hinder proper function
• Dehydration synthesis reactions water molecule cleave macromolecules
• Nucleic acids comprised monomers called nucleotides
• Amino acids identical structure r group variable chemical
• Lipids nonpolar macromolecules differences saturation determine structure function
• Cell membranes lipids proteins contain
• Nucleotides pair hydrogen bonds with
• Dna structured antiparallel double helix
• Dna rna synthesis nucleotides added end
• Nucleic acids run p end
• Protein folding influenced amino acid structure properties r
• Ribosomes made ribosomal rna rrna proteins
• Golgi apparatus series flattened membrane-bound sacs fold modify
• Organisms surface area affects rate heat exchange environment. 
• Enzymes biological catalysts accelerate biochemical reactions
• Enzymes proteins most are
• Enzyme ends ase the name
• Enzymes reusable chemically altered reaction
• Enzymes catalysts meaning lower activation energy requirement reactions
• Denaturation typically result temperature ph
• Increasing enzyme concentration increases reaction rate
• Allosteric sites regions active molecules bind alter structure
• Energy coupling energy-releasing processes drive energy-storing
• Photosynthesis evolved prokaryotes traveled eukaryotes endosymbiosis
• Photosynthesis captures energy sun produce sugars
• Electrons transferred transport chain electrochemical gradient protons established
• Atp proton gradient forms simultaneous synthesis adp p
• Nadph carrier molecule temporarily stores chemical energy
• Photosynthetic prokaryotes credited formation oxygenated atmosphere
• Photosystems light-capturing units chloroplasts membranes
• Biological work requires atp adenosine triphosphate
• Oxidative phosphorylation process phosphorylating adp turn atp
• Electron transport chains controlled efficient transfer energy
• Electrons delivered carrier molecules nadh fadh2 cellular respiration
• Key features krebs cycle releases co2 transfers high
• Byproducts fermentation ethanol lactic acid
• Steroids typically transfer membrane passive diffusion small nonpolar
• Heritable information continuity life provides
• Nucleic acids dna and rna carriers genetic infomration
• Transmission genetic information generation helps provide continuity life
• Endocytosis cell takes types phagocytosis large particles eating
• Ion moving cotransport energy transporting move membrane symport
• Cellular compartments processes occur simultaneously increasing efficiency
• Membrane folding maximizes surface area metabolic reactions occur
• Unlike prokaryotes eukaryotes membrane-bound organelles theorized formed plasma
• Enzymes maintain tertiary structure order work
• Active sites locations enzyme interact specifically substrates unique
• Denaturation change shape enzyme.  typically irreversible
• Increasing substrate concentration increases reaction rate saturation
• Competitive inhibitors molecules bind active site enzyme inhibiting
• Noncompetitive inhibitors bind allosteric site causing structural change
• Energy pathways biological systems sequential controlled efficient transfer
• Energy i photosynthesis chlorophylls absorb light boosting electrons
• Energy captured photosynthesis powers production sugars co2 calvin
• Photosynthesis electron reduces nadp+ nadph store enegy
• Oxygen cellular respiration fermentation in
• Glycolysis breakdown glucose cytoplasm form atp adp p
• Electron transport chains establish electrochemical gradients
• Atp synthase proton gradient synthesize
• Nadh fadh2 lose high energy electrons transport chain
• Decoupling oxidative phosphorylation leads heat production endothermic organisms
• Glycolysis pyruvate transported cytosol mitochondrion undergoes oxidation reaction
• Conversion atp adp releases energy breaking bonds hydrolysis
• Cyclin-dependent kinases enzymes involved cell-cycle regulation.  require cyclin
• Cell cancer result uncontrolled division unregulated cycle
• Cells trigger apoptosis detect undergone genetic alteration harmful
• Similarities due homology shared ancestry.  analogy convergent evolution
• Stimulus signal response organism a
• Behavior signaling stimulates organisms result differential reproductive success
• Innate behaviors genetically controlled occuring prior experience training
• Cooperative behavior increase fitness individual survival population
• Mammals scent markings establish territory attract females warn
• Honeybees social insects live organized colonies.  natural selection
• Body ectotherms cold"-blooded lack efficient internal mechanisms maintaining
• Litters common large offspring unstable environments small stable
• Energy change availability disrupt ecosystem.  resources sunlight producer
• Produces daughter cells genetically parent mitosis diploid identical
• I random sexual reproduction eukaryotes involving gamete formation
• Random assortment refers chromosomes randomly independently organize daughter
• Cells communicate direct contact cells.  send chemical signals
• Local regulators neurons communicate neurotransmitters short-distance communication.  releases
• Signaling begins recognition chemical messenger ligand receptor protein
• Unicellular organisms group colonies communicate cells physical contact
• Step cell communication reception detection signal molecule coming
• Signal e.g transduction pathways include protein modification regulate
• Signal transduction pathways require receptor.  small molecules steroids
• Organisms regulate signal transduction pathways respond environment.  g-coupled
• Signal transduction pathways target gene expression change amount/type
• Types feedback positive negative two
• Greater positive feedback mechanisms amplify responses cylically effect
• Steps interphase g1 cell growth s synthesizing dna
• Mitosis transfers complete genome parent cell genetically identical
• Cytokinesis equally distributes cytoplasm daughter cells
• Prophase nuclear envelope begins disappear chromosomes condense fibers
• Anaphase fibers separate chromosomes chromatids migrating opposite sides
• Telophase nuclear envelope reappears establishes separate nuclei nucleus
• Cell checkpoints prevent progressing stage cycle quickly.  g2
• Mutations genome organism are changes
• Mutations positive negative neutral can
• Types dna mutation substitution insertion/deletion.  lead missense changed
• Mutations primary source genetic variation
• Horizontal gene transfer increases genetic variation prokaryotes transformation
• Conjugation cell-to-cell transfer dna external cell extension
• Dna transposition movement segments molecules inversion translocation deletion
• Molecules dna move gel electrophoresis separates size.  negatively
• Bacterial transformation introduces dna cells plasmids chromosome.  works
• Hydrogen bonds weak interactions negative positive regions seperate
• Hydrogen bonds form cohesion molecule adhesion
• Water allowing organisms nutrients heat animals properties unique
• Nitrogen essential amino acids nucleic
• Carbon skeletons backbone biological molecules
• Hydrolysis reactions water break biological molecules
• Subcomponents nucleic acid structure five-carbon sugar phosphate group
• Differences dna rna sugar deoxyribose ribose nitrogen base
• Regions phospholipids polar hydrophilic nonpolar hydrophobic makes plasma
• Proteins comprised linear chains amino acids
• Bond hydrogen a-t c-g bonds.  h-bonds means greater
• Amino acids elements protein structure primary linear sequence
• Smooth er forms endoplasmic reticulum rough ribosomes attached
• Villi microvilli increase surface area higher absorption nutrients
• Food population denser due energy higher reproductive rate
• Key functions membrane proteins transport cell-to-cell recognition enzymatic
• I ii prophase metaphase anaphase telophase cytokinesis meiosis
• Consumer primary food chain producer secondary tertiary quaternary
• Transfer energy trophic levels inefficient roughly limits length
• Organisms capture energy photosynthetic sunlight chemosynthetic small inorganic
• Organisms modulate reproductive strategies response energy availability examples
• Implantation grizzly bears mate july females delay eggs
• Food size populations largely depends availability resources.  energy
• Offspring reproductive maturity factors affect rate population growth
• Factors include population limiting affectors dependent independent density. 
• Species composition refers identity community
• Index species simpson's diversity measure structure community terms
• Interactions populations drive dynamics determining access energy matter
• Species niche partitioning resources competitive exclusion principle states
• Keystone species affect environment disproportionately relative abundance community
• Keystone species removed ecosystem collapses.  control population sizes
• Change human impacts accelerate local global levels migration
• Geological meteorological activities lead ecosystems.  accelerate evolution reproductive
• Diploid 2n means full sets pairs chromosomes each parent. 
• Daughter parent meiosis results cells half number chromosomes
• Separate telophase i ii nuclear envelope reappears establishes
• Metaphase ii fibers align double chromosomes center cell
• G-c dna rna exhibit specific nucleotide base pairing
• Ring structure e.g specific nucleotide base pairing conserved
• Dna replication genetic information copied.  occurs cell division
• Terminal group dna synthesized phosphate hydroxyl direction
• Strand synthesized nucleotides added growing direction.  means continously
• Dna polymerase synthesizes strands requires rna primers intiate
• Ligase joins dna fragments lagging strand
• Dna molecules rna flow genetic information stored facilitate
• Dna strand transcription process enzyme directs formation mrna
• Poly-a tail adenine nucleotides added end mrna transcript
• Transcript gtp cap modified guanine nucleotide attached end
• Mrna sequences code amino acids rna processing.  exons
• Dna retroviruses genetic information converted rna reverse transcriptase. 
• Translation trna brings amino acid place codon mrna
• Stop codons code amino acid terminating process translation
• Regulatory sequences stretches dna interact proteins.  promote inhibit
• Cell differentiation results differential expression genes tissue-specific proteins
• Phenotype cell organism determined combination genes expressed
• Operons closely linked genes produce single mrna molecule
• Operons repressible inducible turned trp synthesis tryptophan lac
• Negative regulatory molecules inhibit gene expression binding promoter
• Bind small rna fragments roles gene expression break
• High osmolarity solute concentration water flows low
• Structure cell membranes results selective permeability fluid-mosaic model
• Cell membranes separate internal external environments respect
• E.g hydrophillic substances large polar molecules ions move
• Regions active transport requires direct input energy move
• Exocytosis internal vesicles fuse plasma membrane secrete large
• Large quantities water pass aquaporins
• Charged ions na  and k require channel proteins
• Membranes polarized movement ions may
• Small nonpolar molecules including n o freely pass
• Polar uncharged molecules h o pass membrane small
• Cell walls provide structural boundary permeability barrier substances
• Cell walls plants prokaryotes fungi composed complex carbohydrates
• Concentration passive transport net movement molecules high low
• Selective permeability membranes formation concentration gradients solutes
• Endocytosis cell takes macromolecules particulate matter forming vesicles
• Membrane proteins active transport are
• Shared conserved fundamental processes features support concept common
• Organisms major features genetic code shared supports theory
• Core metabolic pathways conserved recognized domains supports concept
• Mendel's laws describe inheritance genes traits chromosomes
• Gene codes trait a for
• Allele specific variation gene organisms inherit parents
• Dominant allele shows phenotype inherited uppercase letter
• Homozygous genotype alleles e.g aa
• Phenotype physical result genotype the
• B mutually exclusive p(a p(b determining odds genetic
• B independent p(a p(a) × p(b).  determining odds genetic
• Affected autosomal dominant traits show pattern offspring parents
• Hypothesis difference null significant populations observed due sampling
• Test chi-square goodness-of-fit determine categorical variable hypothesized distribution
• Hybridization mating crossing true-breeding varieties
• Alternative versions genes as alleles account variations inherited characters
• Allele organism's locus differ dominant determines appearance recessive
• Specific dihybridcross genetic mix individuals homozygous genotypes for characters result
• Test dominant homozygous crosses determine organism phenotypically heterozygous. 
• Heredity transmission traits generation the
• Genetics study heredity is the
• Hybrids offspring varieties are of
• Environmental factors gene influence expression change
• Plants number stomates determined amount carbon dioxide atmosphere
• Environmental factors influence genes expressed.  leads phenotypic plasticity
• Characters multifactorial influenced number factors genetic environmental
• Sex-linked traits determined genes located sex chromosomes
• Linked genes sex-linked traits follow ratios predicted mendel's
• Probability linked genes segregate unit calculate map distance
• Map distance determined frequently pair genes participates single
• Recombination frequency map units =
• Humans biological females two x chromosomes xx
• Males phenotypes recessive sex-linked alleles inherit x chromosome
• Pleiotropy property gene multiple phenotypic effects
• Polygenic inheritance additive effect genes single phenotypic character
• Characters quantitative continuous domain traits opposed discrete set
• Codominance phenotypes expressed heterozygote is
• Genetically unique random fertilization sperm created male join
• Evolution driven natural selection is
• Evolution change genetic makeup population time
• Variation conditions natural selection reproduction heredity characteristics fitness
• Variation refers genetic differences organisms population.  mutations sexual
• Fitness evolutionary measured reproductive success.  ability organism survive
• Extinction refers disappearance species future generations naturally populate
• Rate ecosystem stability determines direction evolution.  unstable environment
• Examples evolution changing selective pressures peppered moths industrial
• Artificial selection result phenotypes exist nature
• Artificial selection increase decrease genetic diversity
• Artificial selection humans affect variation species
• Evolution driven random occurrences mutation
• Mutation leads alteration dna sequence
• Genetic drift refers random change frequency allele population. 
• Isolated population founder effect individuals larger establish gene
• Hardy-weinberg equilibrium population evolving at
• Hardy-weinberg equilibrium allele frequencies population inferred genotype frequences
• Allele frequences provide evidence evolution population frequencies means
• Evolution supported scientific evidence.  evidence supporting geographical geological
• Fossils preserved remains impression trace living organisms past
• Morphological homologies represent modified traits shared species indicators
• Structures analogous evolved independently species due similar selective
• Amino acid differences animals time passed divergence ancestry
• Structural evidence common ancestry eukaryotes membrane-bound organelles linear
• Eukaryotic chromosomes prokaryotic contained differ providing evidence common
• Genes eukaryotic differ prokaryotic providing evidence common ancestry
• Life continues evolve to even
• Reduction genetic variation population increase differences species
• Speciation occurs populations reproductively isolated
• Species biological concept commonly definition groups capable interbreeding
• Speciation refers creation species resulting greater diversity lifeforms
• Barriers biological consist prezygotic postzygotic
• Behavioral isolation prezygotic biological barrier species courtship behaviors
• Gamete isolation prezygotic biological barrier species successfully fertilize
• Hybrid inviability postzygotic biological barrier mating results zygote
• Hybrid sterility postzygotic biological barrier offspring produced healthy
• Allopatric speciation evolution species due individuals population geographically
• Rapidly punctuated equilibrium evolution occurs long period stasis
• Gradualism evolution occurs slowly due slow changing ecological
• Adaptive radiation organisms diversify rapidly multitude forms ecological
• Biological barriers maintain reproductive isolation prevent gene flow
• Phylogenetic trees show change time implying evolutionary scale
• Cladogram out-group represents lineage closely related remainder organisms
• Phylogenetic trees cladograms constructed morphological similarities living fossil
• Constructing phylogenetic trees cladograms molecular data typically accurate
• Earth formed approximately billion years ago
• Earth hostile life billion years ago
• Molecules chemical experiments shown form complex organic inorganic
• Extinction naturally occurs part history life earth serving
• Large scale extinction events diversity species severely decreases
• Speciation extinction rates determine amount diversity ecosystem.  diversity. 
• Earth recovers large-scale extinction events due rapid speciation
• Genetic populations low diversity heightened risk extinction.  california
• Alleles adaptive environmental condition deleterious due selective pressures
• Organisms nucleic acids store transmit genetic information supports
• Organisms ribosomes synthesize proteins rna.  supports theory common
• Organisms process cellular respiration conserve aspect of glycolysis supports
• Allele recessive shows phenotype dominant inherited lowercase letter
• Genotype combination inherited alleles typically represented letters
• Heterozygous genotype alleles aa containing
• Alleles law segregation separation genetic variation gametes.  heritable
• Pedigree visual representation tracing history trait familial generations
• Autosomal recessive traits show pattern affected offspring unaffected
• Hypothesis difference alternative significant populations observed due nonrandom
• True breeding organisms plants produce variety traits parent
• Locus alleles character organisms inherits copies gene parent
• Specific monohybrid cross genetic mix individuals homozygous genotypes for character which
• Genes assort pair alleles law independent assortment states
• Generation p parent f1 filial f2
• Phenotypic plasticity ability genotype produce phenotype
• Due phenotypic diversity environmental factors necessarily genetic
• Hydrangea plants color flowers determined ph soil raising
• Generally phenotypic range broadest polygenic quantitative characters
• Genes linked adjacent close chromosome inherited
• Cladogram clade monophyletic group/taxon includes group sharing common
• Phylogenetic trees cladograms represent hypotheses revised based evidence
• Phylogenetic trees cladograms traits gained lost lineage.  shared
• Phylogenetic represents common trees cladograms node lines meet
• Derived characteristics traits recent species evolved ancestral trait. 
• Earliest fossil evidence life dates billion years ago
• Organic early earth atmospheric molecules hypotheses origin conditions
• Rna world hypothesis proposed self-replicating earliest genetic molecule. 
• Extinction rates rapid times ecological stress solar flares
• Habitat human activity drive ecosystems extinctions loss climate
• Extinction newly ecological niches exploited species
• Adaptive extinction leads open ecological niches facilitate rapid
• Diverse environmental population susceptible genetically resilient perturbation individuals
• P q frequency allele 2pq dominant recessive
• Frequency genotype aa p dominant 2pq heterozygous q
• Selection conditions hardy-weinberg equilibrium genetic drift large population
• Selection factors disrupt hardy-weinberg equilibrium changing allele frequencies
• Fossil dated variety methods age rocks found rate
• Vestigial structures reduced obsolete features morphological homologies serve
• Evidence biochemical evolution common ancestry.  animals dna rna
• Features fundamental molecular cellular processes common domains species. 
• Chloroplasts mitochondria structural similarities including double membrane circular
• Gene mechanisms genetic change dna mutations horizontal transfer
• Record continuous change fossil evidence continous evolution provide
• Resistance evolution.  lifetimes chemicals resulted species mutation results
• Pathogens evolve emergent diseases.  pathogenic genomes experience high
• Reproductive isolation essential speciation prevents gene flow populations. 
• Habitat isolation prezygotic biological barrier species occupy rarely
• Temporal isolation prezygotic biological barrier species breed times
• Mechanical isolation prezygotic biological barrier species structural differences
• Barriers prevent prezygotic production fertilized egg zygote postzygotic
• Hybrids breakdown postzygotic biological barrier second-generation feeble sterile
• Isolation hybrid barriers prezygotic habitat temporal behavioral mechanical
• Sympatric speciation evolution species due individuals reproductively isolated
• Divergent evolution occurs adaptation habitats results phenotypic diversification
• Sympatric speciation occurs geographic allopatric isolation due isolation. 
• Phylogenetric trees cladograms branched diagrams showing evolutionary relationships
• Map distance tells close pair linked genes
• Linked genes recombination frequency have
• Humans biological males x y chromosome xy
• Y chromosome smaller carries genetic information sex-linked alleles
• Traits product multiple genes and/or physiological processes happening
• Chloroplast mitochondria non-nuclear genome.  randomly assorted gametes daughter
• Incomplete dominance represented heterozygous phenotype intermediate homozgous
• Things result genetic variation sexually-reproducing species: segregation, independent assortment and random
• Genetic mutation contributes diversity sexual asexual species manifesting
• Nondisjunction failure chromosomes separate gamete formation leading human
• Disorders disease human genetic due single affected mutated
• Natural selection process organisms inherited traits tend survive
• Organisms competition struggle limited resources e.g space food
• Adaptations traits provide advantage environment.  individuals greater chance
• Heritability ability pass adaptations succesive generations
• Due natural selection traits individuals reproductive success common
• Genetic variation increases probability population organisms survive changing
• Selective pressure reason phenotypes survival benefit disadvantage changing
• Artificial selection process humans select desirable traits species
• Similar traits convergent evolution process environmental conditions select
• Genetic mutation contributes makeup population overtime creating variation. 
• Genetic bottleneck effect caused severe reduction population size
• Flow genetic migration/gene movement individuals populations causing exchange

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