AP Biology Complete Deck

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• Living systems energy stored chemical bonds
• Living cells genome ribosomes providing evidence common ancestry
• Ribosomes synthesize proteins mrna sequence
• Endoplasmic reticulum network membrane tubes cytoplasm inside eukaryotic
• Rough er ribosomes attached membrane compartmentalizes cell packages
• Smooth er attached ribosomes functions include detoxification lipid
• Mitochondria double membrane forming folds called cristae
• Lysosomes membrane-enclosed sacs hydrolytic enzymes digest variety materials
• Vacuoles membrane-bound sacs store water molecules increasing turgor
• Chloroplasts photosynthesis capture energy sun produce sugar
• Mitochondria functions generating atp energy cell
• Increases folding membranes chloroplast mitochondria theor surface area
• Thylakoids organized stacks called grana
• Stroma fluid located chloroplast membrane
• Electron transport atp synthesis occur mitochondrial membrane
• Smaller cells higher surface area-to-volume ratio efficient exchange
• Complex cellular structures increase surface area
• Size organisms affects rate heat exchange environment
• Organisms obtain evolved highly efficient strategies nutrients eliminate
• Phospholipids hydrophillic hydrophobic regions have
• Cell membranes consist structural framework phospholipid molecules embedded
• Metabolic energy atp required active transport molecules and/or
• Na k  atpase maintains membrane potential
• Water areas solute moves osmosis high potential/low osmolarity/low
• Water flows hypotonic side hypertonic
• Ψ water potential w = ψ p r
• Osmoregulation maintains water balance organisms control internal solute
• Constant ψ s icrt i ionization c molar
• Nitrogen essential amino acids nucleic
• Phosphorous build nucleic acids lipids
• Heritable information continuity life provides
• Nucleic acids dna and rna carriers genetic infomration
• Genetic information transferred cells during cell division
• Transmission genetic information generation helps provide continuity life
• Law segregation accounts ratio mendel observed f2 generation crosses
• Examples cellular response include growth secretion gene expression
• Similarities due homology shared ancestry.  analogy convergent evolution
• Organisms respond environment behavioral physiological
• Stimulus signal response organism a
• Behavior signaling stimulates organisms result differential reproductive success
• Animals communicate variety reasons dominance find food establish
• Signals visual audible tacticle electrical chemical
• Innate behaviors genetically controlled occuring prior experience training
• Learned behaviors developed result experience
• Cooperative behavior increase fitness individual survival population
• Aposematism sign marking behaviors chemical animal warns potential
• Mammals scent markings establish territory attract females warn
• Natural selection favors behaviors increase survival populations
• Honeybees social insects live organized colonies.  natural selection
• Organisms respond environment maintain homeostasis increases survivability
• Body ectotherms cold"-blooded lack efficient internal mechanisms maintaining
• Metabolic rate amount energy expended animal unit time
• Generally smaller organism higher metabolic rate
• Producing lot offpsring energy-efficient offspring
• Litters common large offspring unstable environments small stable
• Trophic level position organism occupies food chain
• Energy net gain results storage growth
• Loss net energy results body mass eventually death
• Energy change availability disrupt ecosystem.  resources sunlight producer
• Food chain shows direction nutrient energy transfer organism
• Consumer primary food chain producer secondary tertiary quaternary
• Food webs consist interconnected chains
• Transfer energy trophic levels inefficient roughly limits length
• Capture energy autotrophs environment heterotrophs carbon compounds produced
• Organisms capture energy photosynthetic sunlight chemosynthetic small inorganic
• Heterotrophs metabolize carbohydrates lipids proteins sources energy hydrolysis
• Organisms modulate reproductive strategies response energy availability examples
• Implantation grizzly bears mate july females delay eggs
• Food size populations largely depends availability resources.  energy
• Species adaptations aid survival energy availability changes.  storage
• Offspring reproductive maturity factors affect rate population growth
• Population growth equation $$]\frac{dn}{dt b d[/$$
• Reproduction constraints results exponential growth population
• Growth exponential $$]\frac{dn}{dt r_{max}n[/$$ $]r_{max}[/$ maximum capita rate
• Food population denser due energy higher reproductive rate
• Factors include population limiting affectors dependent independent density. 
• Carrying capacity maximum number individuals environment sustain
• Logistic growth $$]\frac{dn}{dt r_{max}n(\frac{k-n}{k})[/$$ k carrying capacity
• Community group species living location interacting
• Species composition refers identity community
• Index species simpson's diversity measure structure community terms
• Interactions populations drive dynamics determining access energy matter
• Trophic cascade addition removal key species cascading effects
• Species niche partitioning resources competitive exclusion principle states
• Diverse ecosystems resilient environment diversity stabilizes ecosystems.  vulnerable
• Producers essential biodiversity feed/shelter populations reduce erosion
• Predators diverse prey keystone array populations control.  dominant
• Producers feed populations predators prey control
• Keystone species affect environment disproportionately relative abundance community
• Keystone species removed ecosystem collapses.  control population sizes
• Species invasive non-native which harms community introduced
• Newly introduced invasive species exploit niche outcompete organisms
• Change human impacts accelerate local global levels migration
• Geological meteorological activities lead ecosystems.  accelerate evolution reproductive
• Meiosis ensures formation haploid gamete cells sexually reproducing
• Diploid 2n means full sets pairs chromosomes each parent. 
• Haploid n means set chromosomes.  gametes sex cells
• Sexual reproduction haploid gamete cells produce diploid
• Daughter parent meiosis results cells half number chromosomes
• Meiosis meiosis rounds division i ii
• I ii prophase metaphase anaphase telophase cytokinesis meiosis
• Prophase i nuclear envelope disappears fibers begin form
• Align double chromosomes metaphase i fibers center cell
• Anaphase i fibers separate chromosome pairs
• Separate telophase i ii nuclear envelope reappears establishes
• Meiosis end i ii daughter cells haploid genetically
• Prophase ii nuclear envelope disappears fibers begin form
• Metaphase ii fibers align double chromosomes center cell
• Anaphase ii fibers separate sister chromatids
• Produces daughter cells genetically parent mitosis diploid identical
• I random sexual reproduction eukaryotes involving gamete formation
• Crossing interchange genes chiasma homologs occurs prophase i
• Random assortment refers chromosomes randomly independently organize daughter
• Gametes random fertilization occurs male female fuse create
• Cells communicate direct contact cells.  send chemical signals
• Cell target receiving signal the
• Cells communication short-distance due sending local regulators facilitate
• Local regulators neurons communicate neurotransmitters short-distance communication.  releases
• Signal transduction pathways link reception cellular responses
• Stages cell communicaiton reception transduction response
• Signaling begins recognition chemical messenger ligand receptor protein
• Signaling cascades relay signals receptors cell targets amplifying
• Ligand binds intracellular domain receptor protein shape initiating
• Unicellular organisms group colonies communicate cells physical contact
• Step cell communication reception detection signal molecule coming
• Step cell communication transduction convert signal form bring
• Step cell communication response specific cellular signal molecule
• Signal e.g transduction pathways include protein modification regulate
• Signaling cascades relay amplify signals
• Secondary messengers molecules relay amplify intracellular signal
• Signal transduction pathways require receptor.  small molecules steroids
• Phosphorylation cascade signaling pathway enzyme phosphorylates causing amplification
• Organisms regulate signal transduction pathways respond environment.  g-coupled
• Signal transduction pathways target gene expression change amount/type
• Bacteria quorum sensing release signals neighboring detect population
• Apoptosis programmed cell death is
• Mutations domain receptor protein component signal pathway affect
• Chemicals change structure signaling pathway changing function activating
• Feedback maintains homeostasis
• Types feedback positive negative two
• Greater positive feedback mechanisms amplify responses cylically effect
• Negative feedback cell condition deviates homeostasis returns system
• Main phases cell cycle interphase m-phase
• Steps interphase g1 cell growth s synthesizing dna
• Cell division essential growth tissue repair asexual reproduction
• Mitosis transfers complete genome parent cell genetically identical
• Steps mitosis prophase metaphase anaphase telophase cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis equally distributes cytoplasm daughter cells
• Cell enter g0 stage longer divides reenter cycle
• Prophase nuclear envelope begins disappear chromosomes condense fibers
• Metaphase fibers align chromosomes center cell
• Anaphase fibers separate chromosomes chromatids migrating opposite sides
• Mitosis fibers connect centromeres pull chromosomes anaphase
• Telophase nuclear envelope reappears establishes separate nuclei nucleus
• Checkpoints regulate progression cell cycle
• Cell checkpoints prevent progressing stage cycle quickly.  g2
• M-spindle checkpoint checks chromosomes fiber attached
• Concentration cell cyclins proteins fluctuate specific phases cycle
• Cyclin-dependent kinases enzymes involved cell-cycle regulation.  require cyclin
• Disruptions cell cycle result cancer and/or apoptosis
• Cell cancer result uncontrolled division unregulated cycle
• Cells trigger apoptosis detect undergone genetic alteration harmful
• Extinction mass requires rate group organisms greater background
• Dna rarely rna primary source hereditary material
• Genetic information stored sequence bases dna rna
• Viruses rna molecules encode genetic information
• G-c dna rna exhibit specific nucleotide base pairing
• G guanine c cytosine adenine t thymine u
• Ring structure e.g specific nucleotide base pairing conserved
• Plasmids small extra-chromosomal circular dna molecules present prokyaryotic
• Dna replication genetic information copied.  occurs cell division
• Dna strand replication semiconservative means original completely synthesized
• Terminal group dna synthesized phosphate hydroxyl direction
• Runs dna strands antiparallel meaning comlement
• Strand synthesized nucleotides added growing direction.  means continously
• Helicase unwinds dna strands
• Topoisomerase relaxes supercoil replication fork
• Dna polymerase synthesizes strands requires rna primers intiate
• Ligase joins dna fragments lagging strand
• Dna molecules rna flow genetic information stored facilitate
• Dna strand transcription process enzyme directs formation mrna
• Rna polymerase synthesizes mrna direction reading template
• Ribosomes main types rna molecules mrna carries genetic
• Strand template referred noncoding minus antisense
• Poly-a tail adenine nucleotides added end mrna transcript
• Transcript gtp cap modified guanine nucleotide attached end
• Mrna sequences code amino acids rna processing.  exons
• Exons splicing retaining mrna transcript.  primary alternative process
• Translation mrna generates polypeptides of
• Ribosomes translation occurs cytosolic rough endoplasmic reticulum eukaryotes
• Translation main steps initiation elongation termination
• Dna retroviruses genetic information converted rna reverse transcriptase. 
• Trna reads mrna rrna adds amino acids growing
• Translation initiated rrna interacts mrna start codon
• Translation trna brings amino acid place codon mrna
• Naturally occuring amino acids there
• Start codon aug codes amino acid methionine
• Stop codons code amino acid terminating process translation
• Regulatory sequences stretches dna interact proteins.  promote inhibit
• Histones proteins wrap dna loose tight coils
• Modifications packing chemical histones tight loose chromatin regulates
• Cell differentiation results differential expression genes tissue-specific proteins
• Transcription factors proteins promote inhibit gene
• Transcription factors determine cell differentiates
• Phenotype cell organism determined combination genes expressed
• Controlled genes coordinately groups factor
• Operons closely linked genes produce single mrna molecule
• Operator dna sequence inhibits promotes transcription binding regulatory
• Proteins related function transcribed controlled transcription factors
• Operons repressible inducible turned trp synthesis tryptophan lac
• Groups genes controlled transcription factors order coordinately regulate
• Promoters dna sequences upstream transcription start site rna
• Negative regulatory molecules inhibit gene expression binding promoter
• Bind small rna fragments roles gene expression break
• Mutations genome organism are changes
• Mutations positive negative neutral can
• Types dna mutation substitution insertion/deletion.  lead missense changed
• Sickle cell disease result substitution mutation
• Errors dna mutations caused replication repair radiation reactive
• Mutations primary source genetic variation
• Mutations create phenotypes often new
• Horizontal gene transfer increases genetic variation prokaryotes transformation
• Transformation uptake naked dna e.g plasmids
• Transduction transmission genetic information virus host
• Conjugation cell-to-cell transfer dna external cell extension
• Dna transposition movement segments molecules inversion translocation deletion
• Related viruses combine genetic information infect host cell
• Molecules dna move gel electrophoresis separates size.  negatively
• Samples polymerase chain reaction scientists create large dna
• Bacterial transformation introduces dna cells plasmids chromosome.  works
• Dna nucleotides sequencing scientists determine order molecule.  process
• Hydrogen bonds weak interactions negative positive regions seperate
• Hydrogen bonds form cohesion molecule adhesion
• Water polar due electronegativity h o
• Bond region hydrogen weak interaction h positive n
• Water allowing organisms nutrients heat animals properties unique
• Living systems constant input energy grow reproduce maintain
• Carbon build biological macromolecules is
• Carbon skeletons backbone biological molecules
• Dehydration synthesis reactions water molecule cleave macromolecules
• Hydrolysis reactions water break biological molecules
• Subcomponents nucleic acid structure five-carbon sugar phosphate group
• Nucleic acids comprised monomers called nucleotides
• Differences dna rna sugar deoxyribose ribose nitrogen base
• Amino acids identical structure r group variable chemical
• Lipids nonpolar macromolecules differences saturation determine structure function
• Regions phospholipids polar hydrophilic nonpolar hydrophobic makes plasma
• Cell membranes lipids proteins contain
• Nucleotides pair hydrogen bonds with
• Dna structured antiparallel double helix
• Proteins comprised linear chains amino acids
• Bond hydrogen a-t c-g bonds.  h-bonds means greater
• Dna rna synthesis nucleotides added end
• Nucleic acids run p end
• Amino acids elements protein structure primary linear sequence
• Protein folding influenced amino acid structure properties r
• Ribosomes made ribosomal rna rrna proteins
• Smooth er forms endoplasmic reticulum rough ribosomes attached
• Golgi apparatus series flattened membrane-bound sacs fold modify
• Villi microvilli increase surface area higher absorption nutrients
• Organisms surface area affects rate heat exchange environment. 
• Key functions membrane proteins transport cell-to-cell recognition enzymatic
• Endocytosis cell takes types phagocytosis large particles eating
• Ion moving cotransport energy transporting move membrane symport
• Cells amount water maintain normal plants turgid structure
• Water open container potential pure
• Open system pressure potential in
• Cellular compartments processes occur simultaneously increasing efficiency
• Requires compartmentalization minimizes competing interactions.  instance lysosome high
• Membrane folding maximizes surface area metabolic reactions occur
• Cell loss cellular compartments membranes hinder proper function
• Unlike prokaryotes eukaryotes membrane-bound organelles theorized formed plasma
• Enzymes biological catalysts accelerate biochemical reactions
• Enzymes proteins most are
• Enzymes maintain tertiary structure order work
• Active sites locations enzyme interact specifically substrates unique
• Enzyme ends ase the name
• Enzymes reusable chemically altered reaction
• Enzymes catalysts meaning lower activation energy requirement reactions
• Denaturation change shape enzyme.  typically irreversible
• Denaturation typically result temperature ph
• Increasing substrate concentration increases reaction rate saturation
• Increasing enzyme concentration increases reaction rate
• Competitive inhibitors molecules bind active site enzyme inhibiting
• Allosteric sites regions active molecules bind alter structure
• Noncompetitive inhibitors bind allosteric site causing structural change
• Energy coupling energy-releasing processes drive energy-storing
• Energy pathways biological systems sequential controlled efficient transfer
• Photosynthesis evolved prokaryotes traveled eukaryotes endosymbiosis
• Photosynthesis captures energy sun produce sugars
• Energy i photosynthesis chlorophylls absorb light boosting electrons
• Electrons transferred transport chain electrochemical gradient protons established
• Atp proton gradient forms simultaneous synthesis adp p
• Energy captured photosynthesis powers production sugars co2 calvin
• Nadph carrier molecule temporarily stores chemical energy
• Photosynthetic prokaryotes credited formation oxygenated atmosphere
• Photosynthesis electron reduces nadp+ nadph store enegy
• Photosystems light-capturing units chloroplasts membranes
• Oxygen cellular respiration fermentation in
• Biological work requires atp adenosine triphosphate
• Glycolysis breakdown glucose cytoplasm form atp adp p
• Oxidative phosphorylation process phosphorylating adp turn atp
• Electron transport chains controlled efficient transfer energy
• Electron transport chains establish electrochemical gradients
• Electrons delivered carrier molecules nadh fadh2 cellular respiration
• Atp synthase proton gradient synthesize
• Nadh fadh2 lose high energy electrons transport chain
• Decoupling oxidative phosphorylation leads heat production endothermic organisms
• Glycolysis pyruvate transported cytosol mitochondrion undergoes oxidation reaction
• Key features krebs cycle releases co2 transfers high
• Byproducts fermentation ethanol lactic acid
• Conversion atp adp releases energy breaking bonds hydrolysis
• Steroids typically transfer membrane passive diffusion small nonpolar
• High osmolarity solute concentration water flows low
• Polar uncharged molecules h o pass membrane small
• Structure cell membranes results selective permeability fluid-mosaic model
• Cell membranes separate internal external environments respect
• Small nonpolar molecules including n o freely pass
• E.g hydrophillic substances large polar molecules ions move
• Cell walls provide structural boundary permeability barrier substances
• Cell walls plants prokaryotes fungi composed complex carbohydrates
• Concentration passive transport net movement molecules high low
• Regions active transport requires direct input energy move
• Selective permeability membranes formation concentration gradients solutes
• Exocytosis internal vesicles fuse plasma membrane secrete large
• Endocytosis cell takes macromolecules particulate matter forming vesicles
• Large quantities water pass aquaporins
• Charged ions na  and k require channel proteins
• Membranes polarized movement ions may
• Membrane proteins active transport are
• Shared conserved fundamental processes features support concept common
• Organisms nucleic acids store transmit genetic information supports
• Organisms major features genetic code shared supports theory
• Organisms ribosomes synthesize proteins rna.  supports theory common
• Core metabolic pathways conserved recognized domains supports concept
• Organisms process cellular respiration conserve aspect of glycolysis supports
• Mendel's laws describe inheritance genes traits chromosomes
• Gene codes trait a for
• Allele specific variation gene organisms inherit parents
• Dominant allele shows phenotype inherited uppercase letter
• Allele recessive shows phenotype dominant inherited lowercase letter
• Genotype combination inherited alleles typically represented letters
• Homozygous genotype alleles e.g aa
• Heterozygous genotype alleles aa containing
• Phenotype physical result genotype the
• Alleles law segregation separation genetic variation gametes.  heritable
• B mutually exclusive p(a p(b determining odds genetic
• B independent p(a p(a) × p(b).  determining odds genetic
• Pedigree visual representation tracing history trait familial generations
• Affected autosomal dominant traits show pattern offspring parents
• Autosomal recessive traits show pattern affected offspring unaffected
• Hypothesis difference null significant populations observed due sampling
• Hypothesis difference alternative significant populations observed due nonrandom
• Test chi-square goodness-of-fit determine categorical variable hypothesized distribution
• True breeding organisms plants produce variety traits parent
• Hybridization mating crossing true-breeding varieties
• Alternative versions genes as alleles account variations inherited characters
• Locus alleles character organisms inherits copies gene parent
• Allele organism's locus differ dominant determines appearance recessive
• Specific monohybrid cross genetic mix individuals homozygous genotypes for character which
• Specific dihybridcross genetic mix individuals homozygous genotypes for characters result
• Genes assort pair alleles law independent assortment states
• Test dominant homozygous crosses determine organism phenotypically heterozygous. 
• Heredity transmission traits generation the
• Genetics study heredity is the
• Hybrids offspring varieties are of
• Generation p parent f1 filial f2
• Environmental factors gene influence expression change
• Phenotypic plasticity ability genotype produce phenotype
• Due phenotypic diversity environmental factors necessarily genetic
• Hydrangea plants color flowers determined ph soil raising
• Plants number stomates determined amount carbon dioxide atmosphere
• Environmental factors influence genes expressed.  leads phenotypic plasticity
• Generally phenotypic range broadest polygenic quantitative characters
• Characters multifactorial influenced number factors genetic environmental
• Genes linked adjacent close chromosome inherited
• Sex-linked traits determined genes located sex chromosomes
• Linked genes sex-linked traits follow ratios predicted mendel's
• Probability linked genes segregate unit calculate map distance
• Map distance tells close pair linked genes
• Map distance determined frequently pair genes participates single
• Linked genes recombination frequency have
• Recombination frequency map units =
• Humans biological females two x chromosomes xx
• Humans biological males x y chromosome xy
• Y chromosome smaller carries genetic information sex-linked alleles
• Males phenotypes recessive sex-linked alleles inherit x chromosome
• Traits product multiple genes and/or physiological processes happening
• Chloroplast mitochondria non-nuclear genome.  randomly assorted gametes daughter
• Pleiotropy property gene multiple phenotypic effects
• Polygenic inheritance additive effect genes single phenotypic character
• Characters quantitative continuous domain traits opposed discrete set
• Incomplete dominance represented heterozygous phenotype intermediate homozgous
• Codominance phenotypes expressed heterozygote is
• Things result genetic variation sexually-reproducing species: segregation, independent assortment and random
• Genetically unique random fertilization sperm created male join
• Genetic mutation contributes diversity sexual asexual species manifesting
• Nondisjunction failure chromosomes separate gamete formation leading human
• Record continuous change fossil evidence continous evolution provide
• Disorders disease human genetic due single affected mutated
• Evolution driven natural selection is
• Evolution change genetic makeup population time
• Natural selection process organisms inherited traits tend survive
• Variation conditions natural selection reproduction heredity characteristics fitness
• Organisms competition struggle limited resources e.g space food
• Variation refers genetic differences organisms population.  mutations sexual
• Adaptations traits provide advantage environment.  individuals greater chance
• Fitness evolutionary measured reproductive success.  ability organism survive
• Heritability ability pass adaptations succesive generations
• Due natural selection traits individuals reproductive success common
• Rate ecosystem stability determines direction evolution.  unstable environment
• Genetic variation increases probability population organisms survive changing
• Selective pressure reason phenotypes survival benefit disadvantage changing
• Examples evolution changing selective pressures peppered moths industrial
• Artificial selection process humans select desirable traits species
• Artificial selection result phenotypes exist nature
• Artificial selection increase decrease genetic diversity
• Artificial selection humans affect variation species
• Similar traits convergent evolution process environmental conditions select
• Evolution driven random occurrences mutation
• Mutation leads alteration dna sequence
• Genetic mutation contributes makeup population overtime creating variation. 
• Genetic drift refers random change frequency allele population. 
• Genetic bottleneck effect caused severe reduction population size
• Isolated population founder effect individuals larger establish gene
• Flow genetic migration/gene movement individuals populations causing exchange
• Reduction genetic variation population increase differences species
• P q frequency allele 2pq dominant recessive
• Frequency genotype aa p dominant 2pq heterozygous q
• Hardy-weinberg equilibrium population evolving at
• Selection conditions hardy-weinberg equilibrium genetic drift large population
• Hardy-weinberg equilibrium allele frequencies population inferred genotype frequences
• Selection factors disrupt hardy-weinberg equilibrium changing allele frequencies
• Allele frequences provide evidence evolution population frequencies means
• Evolution supported scientific evidence.  evidence supporting geographical geological
• Fossils preserved remains impression trace living organisms past
• Fossil dated variety methods age rocks found rate
• Morphological homologies represent modified traits shared species indicators
• Vestigial structures reduced obsolete features morphological homologies serve
• Structures analogous evolved independently species due similar selective
• Evidence biochemical evolution common ancestry.  animals dna rna
• Amino acid differences animals time passed divergence ancestry
• Features fundamental molecular cellular processes common domains species. 
• Structural evidence common ancestry eukaryotes membrane-bound organelles linear
• Chloroplasts mitochondria structural similarities including double membrane circular
• Eukaryotic chromosomes prokaryotic contained differ providing evidence common
• Genes eukaryotic differ prokaryotic providing evidence common ancestry
• Life continues evolve to even
• Gene mechanisms genetic change dna mutations horizontal transfer
• Resistance evolution.  lifetimes chemicals resulted species mutation results
• Pathogens evolve emergent diseases.  pathogenic genomes experience high
• Speciation occurs populations reproductively isolated
• Species biological concept commonly definition groups capable interbreeding
• Speciation refers creation species resulting greater diversity lifeforms
• Reproductive isolation essential speciation prevents gene flow populations. 
• Barriers biological consist prezygotic postzygotic
• Habitat isolation prezygotic biological barrier species occupy rarely
• Temporal isolation prezygotic biological barrier species breed times
• Behavioral isolation prezygotic biological barrier species courtship behaviors
• Mechanical isolation prezygotic biological barrier species structural differences
• Gamete isolation prezygotic biological barrier species successfully fertilize
• Barriers prevent prezygotic production fertilized egg zygote postzygotic
• Hybrid inviability postzygotic biological barrier mating results zygote
• Hybrid sterility postzygotic biological barrier offspring produced healthy
• Hybrids breakdown postzygotic biological barrier second-generation feeble sterile
• Isolation hybrid barriers prezygotic habitat temporal behavioral mechanical
• Allopatric speciation evolution species due individuals population geographically
• Sympatric speciation evolution species due individuals reproductively isolated
• Rapidly punctuated equilibrium evolution occurs long period stasis
• Gradualism evolution occurs slowly due slow changing ecological
• Divergent evolution occurs adaptation habitats results phenotypic diversification
• Adaptive radiation organisms diversify rapidly multitude forms ecological
• Sympatric speciation occurs geographic allopatric isolation due isolation. 
• Biological barriers maintain reproductive isolation prevent gene flow
• Phylogenetric trees cladograms branched diagrams showing evolutionary relationships
• Phylogenetic trees show change time implying evolutionary scale
• Cladogram clade monophyletic group/taxon includes group sharing common
• Phylogenetic trees cladograms represent hypotheses revised based evidence
• Phylogenetic trees cladograms traits gained lost lineage.  shared
• Cladogram out-group represents lineage closely related remainder organisms
• Phylogenetic represents common trees cladograms node lines meet
• Phylogenetic trees cladograms constructed morphological similarities living fossil
• Derived characteristics traits recent species evolved ancestral trait. 
• Constructing phylogenetic trees cladograms molecular data typically accurate
• Earth formed approximately billion years ago
• Earth hostile life billion years ago
• Earliest fossil evidence life dates billion years ago
• Organic early earth atmospheric molecules hypotheses origin conditions
• Molecules chemical experiments shown form complex organic inorganic
• Rna world hypothesis proposed self-replicating earliest genetic molecule. 
• Extinction refers disappearance species future generations naturally populate
• Extinction naturally occurs part history life earth serving
• Extinction rates rapid times ecological stress solar flares
• Large scale extinction events diversity species severely decreases
• Habitat human activity drive ecosystems extinctions loss climate
• Speciation extinction rates determine amount diversity ecosystem.  diversity. 
• Earth recovers large-scale extinction events due rapid speciation
• Extinction newly ecological niches exploited species
• Adaptive extinction leads open ecological niches facilitate rapid
• Genetic populations low diversity heightened risk extinction.  california
• Diverse environmental population susceptible genetically resilient perturbation individuals
• Alleles adaptive environmental condition deleterious due selective pressures

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