nMDCAT Biology (Pakistan)

This flashcard deck covers key biology topics for the nMDCAT exam in Pakistan. It includes information on the heat of vaporization of water, cellular components such as lysosomes, glycolysis and amino acid codons, genetic disorders like Klinefelter and Turner syndromes, structures and functions of plant and animal cells, parts of photosynthesis, and biological processes including cytokinesis, cell cycle, and meiosis details. Additionally, it addresses causes of cancer, water usage in various nitrogen excretion processes, and types of protists. Overall, it provides comprehensive and detailed information on a wide range of fundamental and complex biology topics.

یہ فلیش کارڈز پاکستان میں nMDCAT کے لیے حیاتیات کے اہم موضوعات کا احاطہ کرتے ہیں۔ ان میں پانی کی بخارات کی حرارت، خلیاتی اجزاء جیسے لیزوسومز، گلیکولائسز اور امینو ایسڈز کے کوڈون، جینیاتی اختلافات جیسے کلائن ویلٹر اور ٹرنر سنڈروم، پودوں اور جانوروں کے خلیوں کی ساخت اور افعال، فوٹوسنتھیسس کے حصے، اور حیاتیاتی عمل مثلاً سائٹوکنسیز، خلیاتی چکر، اور میوزس کی تفصیلات شامل ہیں۔ مزید برآں، کینسر کی وجوہات، حیاتیات میں پانی کے استعمال کی مقدار، اور پروٹوسٹس کی اقسام کا ذکر بھی شامل ہے۔ یہ مجموعی طور پر حیاتیات کے مختلف بنیادی اور پیچیدہ موضوعات کی جامع اور مفصل معلومات فراہم کرتے ہیں۔

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• Echinoderms aka spiny skinned animals
• Cervical vertebrae no of 7
• Cavity pelvic girdle acetabulum of
• Strange type lipids sphingolipids that
• Gastric juice produced daily litres
• Size gallbladder 8cm long 4cm wide
• Underground rivers called aquifers are
• Composition bronchioles cartilage circular smooth muscles mucous membrane
• Amount lymph present body litres
• Number bones axial skeleton of
• Follicle undergoes follicular atresia all
• Polar bodies produced oogenesis how
• Structure adenine of
• Structure guanine of
• Length bryophytes cm of less
• Structure cytosine of
• Structure thymine uracil of and
• Length trna nucleotides of 75
• Conc mrna of 3 to
• Microtubules types mitotic apparatus astral kinetochore polar
• Length chromosomes 0.25μm 50μm of
• Cancer result accumulation mutations somatic cells
• Cytokinesis started animal cells astral microtubules send signals
• Cancer cells overcome restrictions movement caused barriers basal
• Paired homologous chromosomes prophase1 called tetrad bivalent
• Trisomy autosomal non-disjunction disorders mongolism/down edward patau
• Condition xyy jacob's syndrome name
• Absence survival molecules called results apoptosis trophic factors
• Plant hormone flowers fresh cytokinin
• Plant hormone brewing industry ga3 gibberellin promotes malting
• Composition microtubules mitotic apparatus tubulin protein traces rna
• Age composition cell membrane lipids proteins
• Bacterial cell wall called sacculus
• Person study ribosomes palade first
• Number chromosomes chimpanzee frog drosophila pea potato onion
• Plants golgi complex called dictyosomes
• Diameter chloroplasts μm of 4
• Percentage water living organisms of
• Age water bone cells of
• Age water brain cells in
• Names structures 3-c sugars c3h6o3 glyceraldehyde dihydroxyacetone
• Number carbon atoms monosaccharides nature thousands
• Glucose blood concentration 1g/l 0.08
• Number monosaccharides oligosaccharides of in
• Structure fructose ring of
• Examples polysaccharides dextrin agar pectin
• Carbon monosaccharides occurrence tetroses rare occur bacteria
• Melting point butyric acid 8°c
• Acid 18-c unsaturated fatty formula oleic ch3-(ch2)⁷-c=c-(ch2)⁷-cooh double
• Specific gravity fats oils of
• Long chain composition waxes mixture alkanes odd c25
• Dry mass abundant organic compound cells proteins
• Simplest amino acids 1)glycine r=h 2)alanine r=ch3
• Chains haemoglobin composition b total
• Helix number amino acids/turn binding force hydrogen bonding
• Picogram amount dna chicken carp
• Conc rrna present ribosomes of
• Cellular secretions nature glycoprotein most
• Loosely attached non-protein parts enzyme called coenzymes vitamins
• Optimum ph sucrase of 4.50
• Optimum ph enterokinase of 5.50
• Optimum ph salivary amylase of
• Optimum ph chymotrypsin of 7.00
• Optimum ph catalase of 7.6
• Optimum ph lipase of 9.0
• Person observe chromosomes walther fleming examining salamander larvae
• End types chromosomes wrt position centromere middle
• Chemical composition chromosomes proteins dna +associated rna
• Length stretched chromosome 5cm of
• Scientist discovered structure nucleic acids nucleotides p.a levene
• Types chromatin heterochromatin euchromatin of
• Length primer enzyme production rna nucleotides pcr primase
• Salt messelson stahl ultra-centrifuge isotopic tracer cscl cesium
• Trna present human body no
• Nucleosome structure nucleotides wrap core histone proteins
• Codons comparison normal mitochondrial of
• Chemically modified start codon n-formyl methionine
• Promoter region located wrt gene upstream
• Scientific common amalta cassia fistula golden shower
• Scientific brinjal solanum melangena name
• Differentiated procariotique eucariotique e-chatton who
• Virus purified stanley crystallizing tobacco mosaic
• Size viruses wrt bacteria times smaller
• Number capsomeres herpes virus of
• Number capsomeres adenovirus of in
• Thylakoids granum no of in
• Chloroplasts mesophyll cell no of
• Orange types carotenoids colours carotenes red xanthophylls yellow
• Chlorophyll side group formula colour presence ch3 c⁵⁵h⁷²o⁵n⁴mg
• Action spectrum obtained working method tw engelmann spirogyra
• Photosynthesis terrestrial plants is done
• Area leaf surface stomata cover
• Types photosystems ps-i p700 ps-ii p680 earlier
• Calvin cycle
• Abundant protein earth rubisco ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase
• Glycolysis occurs part cytoplasm cytosol
• Energy present terminal p-bond atp kcal/mol
• Reduction diagrammatic representation respiratory electron transport chain q
• Size bronchioles 1mm diameter of
• Passageways nasal cavity total passages
• Number estimate alveoli lungs millions
• Haemoglobin releases o² pressure mmhg
• Blood maximum amount oxygen absorbed human atm air
• Normal blood ph 7.4
• Cancer called carcinoma is also
• Increase oxygen carrying capacity blood caused presence haemoglobin
• Co² inhaled exhaled air in
• Number iron atoms/protein haemoglobin myoglobin
• Colour normal haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin purple-red oxy bright red
• Myoglobin releases o² pressure 20mmhg
• Mycorrhizae present families plants angiosperms flowering
• Proposed cohesion tension theory dixon
• Pull transpirational water height 200m
• Speed water xylem vessels wrt height 1mh-¹ 8mh-¹
• Kpa pressure generated roots ascent sap
• Water secreting glands plants guttation hydathodes
• Due imbibition volume germinating seed increases times
• Age transpiration stomata of from
• Types leaves examples isobilateral lily maize dorsiventral stomata
• Side thickness guard cell concave thick outer convex
• Function role hormones stomatal regulation produced performs high
• Source biennial storage organ acting annual perennial beetroot
• Phloem feeder animal weapon material produced insects aphids
• Velocity sugar molecules phloem diffusion pressure flow 1m
• Theory mechanism phloem translocation pressure flow ernst munch
• Weight body blood 1/12th total
• Plasma proteins synthesized liver antibodies lymphocytes
• Model membrane older cell called unit lipid bilayer
• Million conc rbcs human body numerous blood cell
• Site rbc formation adults embryos red bone marrow
• Wbcs conc blood 1mm³ of
• Diameter thickness rbc 7-8μm wide 2nm thick
• Cells blood arise hemopoietic stem
• Conc platelets blood mm³ of
• Release basophils size shape conc functions 2x rbcs
• Eosinophil size shape conc functions 2x rbcs bilobed
• Macrophages monocytes converted stay hours blood enter tissues
• Separations bw adjacent cardiac cells called intercalated discs
• Ventricle left thickness wrt times thicker
• Aorta bifurcates arteries supply blood leg iliac
• Number heartbeats lifetime billion of
• Duration cardiac cycle of 0.8
• Composition sino-atrial node small number diffusely oriented cardiac
• Osmotic pressure plasma proteins maintain blood provide colloid
• Failure blue babies aka closure interatrial foramen constriction
• Contraction arterial smooth muscles control nervous endocrine systems
• Method material exchange capillaires active transport diffusion capillary
• Veins valves types semilunar contain
• Veins speed blood aorta capillaries 400mms-¹ 500mms-¹ 1mm
• Leading death western civilization thromboembolism
• Stroke aka cerebral infarction is
• Scientific term bleeding haemorrhage for
• Lymph vein largest vessel present body drain thoracic
• Lymph factors maintain flow skeletal muscle activity movement
• Fatty meal conc fat globules aka lymph chylomicrons
• Organ filters blood spleen exposing macrophages lymphocytes destroy
• Structure antibody draw label of
• Cases passive immunity combat active infections tetanus infectious
• Aids virus retrovirus is a
• Tumour rna viruses production animal species cats rodents
• Rna tumour viruses aka shape size envelope specificity
• Injected patient passive immunity antiserum antivenom serum antibodies
• Oedema intracellular i osmosis cells extracellular ii extra
• Events g2 phase energy storage synthesis proteins rna
• Initial cell spermatogenesis spermatogonium for
• Egg production female oogenesis in
• Region female body fertilization occur give names proximal
• Glands present male reproductive system seminal vesicle prostate
• Long menstrual bleeding females days
• End menstrual cycle female's life called menopause
• Factors effect menstrual cycle duration age malnourishment emotional
• Height pea plants feet recessive trait inches
• Mendel performed experiments long years
• Restriction enzyme isolated hamilton o smith
• Restriction enzymes total commonly no
• Restriction enzyme ecor1 cuts c-ttaa^-g
• Plasmids discovered functions studying sexual reproduction intestinal bacterium
• Dna recombinant aka chimaeric is
• Salt make bacterial cells plasmids calcium chloride cacl²
• Pcr developed kary b mullis
• Pcr machine aka thermocycler is
• Years oldest dna analysed mummified brain million plant
• Model plant arabidopsis name of
• Organisms genomes sequenced chloroplasts mitochondria bacteria yeasts nematode
• Biotechnology products obtained bacteria insulin growth hormone tissue
• Large bioreactors vats transgenic bacteria produced amount
• Sweetner produced transgenic bacteria aka type biomolecule raw
• Plant strains engineered produce insect/pest toxins cotton potato
• Human products obtained seeds transgenic plants hormones clotting
• Amount glomerular filtrate reabsorbed what
• Drug obtained genetically engineered goats function antithrombin iii
• Plant cells removed walls called protoplasts
• Hormone animals make larger transgenic bovine growth fishes
• Cells nuclei cloning mice cumulus 2n cling egg
• Cancer make cells chemotherapy gene therapy vulnerable bone
• Suggestion curing parkinson's disease dopamine-producing cells grafted directly
• Suggestions curing hemophilia patients regular doses cells genes
• Human genome size organisms times larger
• Base pairs human genome billion
• Chromosomes potato no of in
• Main points darwin's theort descent modification natural selection
• Respiratory protein found aerobic organisms cytochrome c
• Fossils found materials rock tissues animal replaced sand
• Tubes ear connect throat called developed embryonic structure
• Uric acid structure occurence and
• Urea ornithine cycle +nh³ +co² citrulline argininosuccinate arginine
• Blood kidneys receive heart beat pumped
• Hormones triggers heat production non-shivering thermogenesis thyroid thyroxin
• Organ specialized thermoregulation mammals skin
• Range body temperature mammals 36.1°c 37.8°c
• Strategy heat loss terrestrial mammals sweat panting evaporation
• Chemicals increase body temperature fever pyrogens
• Fever aka pyrexia is
• Μm diameter myofibrils muscle cells myocytes
• Parts sarcomere give etymology central bright region mid-line
• Nm thickness actin myosin filaments
• Huxley sliding filament model proposed h a.f colleagues
• Nuclei type muscle cardiac smooth skeletal
• Striped muscle striations cardiac irregular smooth unstriated skeletal
• Muscle fibres innervated single neuron collectively called motor
• Receptors vibrations present detect general pacinian corpuscles limbs
• Pain receptors aka nociceptors are
• Cells nervous system present called abundance functions neuroglia
• Components present axoplasm mitochondria rough er microtubules neurofibrils
• Structures present cell body neuron nissel's granules groups
• Tracheophytes aka anthophytes are
• Hiv vaccine trials start early south africa
• K+ ions resting membrane potential factors establishment mv
• Speed average max nerve impulse transmission 100ms-¹ 120ms-¹
• Give examples neurotransmitters site function acetylcholine pns dopamine
• Pituitary gland aka weight hypophysis cerebri grams
• Disease adh symptom diabetes insipidus lack secretion dilute
• Trophic hormone secretion pancreatic insulin glucagon pituitary somatotrophin
• Source commercial production gibberellins fungal cultures
• Gibberellins substitute light promote flowering plants red long
• Term mendel genes describe elementens particulate hereditary factors
• Test cross dominant recessive genotype individual homozygous heterozygous
• Scientists rediscovered mendel's work carl correns hugo de
• Traits mendel's pea plant present chromosomes
• Incomplete dominance discovered o'clock flower carl correns
• Gene alleles source extra genetic mutations
• Single gene affects traits phenomenon called pleiotropy
• Scientist studied genetics wheat grain colour nilsson ehle
• Echinoderm skeleton substances nitrogen calcium
• Genes control human skin colour
• Recombinant frequency aka calculated cross backcrossing dihybrid heterozygote
• Provide raw material evolution variations
• Rickets x-linked dominant disease hypophosphatemic vitamin d resistant
• Opsin present x proteins retina colour identification chromosome
• Weakness types colour red protanomalous green deuteranomalous
• Gene triggers maleness humans sry y chromosome 6th
• Test disease conducted restriction endonucleases huntington
• Oldest fossils organism prokaryotes the
• Phase menstruation duration proliferative secretory
• Day ovulation generally occurs menstrual cycle 14th
• Arteriosclerosis degenerative change due age thickening middle layer
• Group side present type chlorophyll chl-a methyl ch³
• Enzyme missing scids patients adenosine deaminase
• Type cofactor haem prosthetic group
• Type cofactors attached dehydrogenases coenzymes
• Examples inhibitors cyanides antibiotics antimetabolites
• Typical magnification powers ocular lens 5x 10x
• Abundance top biomolecule oxygen carbon hydrogen nitrogen calcium
• Age rna bacterial mammalian cells bacteria mammals
• General formula monosaccharides ch²o)n of
• Amino acids general number proteins
• Bonding involved quaternary proteins hydrophobic interactions h-bonding ionic
• Discovered ratio bases present dna erwin chargaff
• Distance bw consecutive base pairs dna 0.34nm
• Opposite feedback inhibition precursor initiation
• Site parts active binding catalytic
• Enzymes lysosomes hydrolytic acid phophatases
• Enzymes peroxisomes type examples oxidative peroxidase catalase glycolic
• Substances stored vacuoles water reserves imp organic compounds
• Mitochondria vesicles rods filaments appear
• Thylakoid side membrane photolysis water occur lumen
• Side thylakoid membrane nadph atp produced stroma
• Structure responsible pumping protons thylakoid membrane plastoquinone cytochrome
• Pyruvic acid krebs matrix site glycolysis oxidation cycle
• Nadh² molecules produced aerobic respiration total
• Cyanobacteria aka blue green algae
• Plants taxon division synonymous phylum
• Prokaryotes mitochondria derived purple bacteria
• Vaccination perfomed duration rest period process named edward
• Rabies caused bite animals dogs cats foxes bats
• Colours absorbed chlorophylls green yellow
• Effect magnesium deficiency plants yellowing leaves
• Forms chlorophyll types differing slightly red absorption peaks
• Alcoholic fermentation
• Glycolysis hydration dehydration step 2-pg pep
• Struture present plants n-fixing bacteria root nodules legumes
• Sexual orientation molluscs hermaphrodite helix separate unio
• Parasitic marine annelids stylaria hirudo leech nereis
• Phyla develop trochophore larvae annelids molluscs
• Forms respiration arthropods aquatic gills terrestrial book lungs
• Transport system arthropods dorsal contractile heart blood sinuses
• Nervous system arthropods components brain ventral double nerve
• Molluscs foods mussels clams oysters
• Annelids food edible fish polychaetes
• Arthropods food crayfish losbsters prawns
• Percent animal species invertebrates what
• Give colonial cnidarians obelia an
• Units colonies cnidaria called types functions zooids polyps/hydroids
• Animal injurious gardens cultivation scientific slug limax
• Marine mussel scientific mytillus name
• Shipworm toredo
• Shellac produced wax secreted iac insects
• Importance echinoderms poisonous food fertilizer scavengers clean seawater
• Hair modified eutheria scales pangolin spikes porcupine
• Arch direction aorta birds mammals left
• Voice box birds location syrinx bw trachea bronchi
• Digits pentactyl limbs amphibians reptiles aves fewer toes
• Amphibians limbs caecilians without
• Mud puppy aka category necturus amphibia
• Category chimaeras belong cartilaginous fishes chondrichthyes gnathostoma vertebrata
• Cranial nerves osteichthyes no of
• Gills covered operculum bony fishes osteichthyes
• Examples cartilaginous fishes dogfish shark squalus acanthias eagle
• Fins bony cartilaginous difference bw osteichthyes chondrichthyes caudal
• Examples urochordates ascidia halosymthia of
• Duct present urochordates hypophyseal in
• Porifera descendants choanoflagellates are the
• Examples agnatha petromyzon marinus sea lamprey myxine glutinosa
• Phaeophyta aka brown algae are
• Protists part building coral reefs red algae caco³
• Organisms contractile vacuoles freshwater protozoans pp excess water
• Pigments present algae chl e carotenoids phycoerythrin phycobilin
• Dinoflagellate ceratium example of
• Bones vertebral column atlas axis
• Algae flagella euglenophyta pyrrophyta volvox chlamydomonas
• Examples minerals present shell marine sarcodines foraminifera caco³
• Centrioles present organisms animals protozoans fungi-like protists lower
• Ph tolerance fungi wide of
• Fungi store carbohydrates glycogen as
• Large species fungi toadstool a
• Types parasitic fungi obligate rust mildews facultative
• Predatory fungi examples pleurotus ostreatus nematodes wood athrobotrys
• Ringworm microsporium audouni cause
• Material inhibit fungal growth source griseofulvin penicillium nigricans
• Antibiotic obtained fungus penicillium chrysogenum
• Diseases caused basidiomycotes rust smuts cereal crops corn
• Types edible mushrooms how many
• Sea lily group organisms echinoderms
• Study bones cartilage called osteology
• Covering cartilage composition dense layer collagen fibres called
• Cartilage types locations hyaline end long bones nose
• Connective tissue covering bones periosteum
• Composition cartilage chondrocytes lacunae collagen elastic fibres
• Bones human skeleton no of
• Minerals bone calcium phosphates carbonates
• Bones skull paired parietal temporal unpaired frontal occipital
• Vertebrae fused pelvic sacrum coccyx
• Pelvic girdle bone components joint coxa ilium ischium
• Humerus fits part shoulder glenoid cavity
• Upper row carpals articulates form wrist joint radius
• Study joints called arthrology of
• Joint type present bw ribs sternum cartilaginous costal
• Structure intervertebral disc annulus fibrosus strong outer covering
• Vertebral spondylosis condition fusion immobility joint column chronic
• Muscles contractile intermediate filaments smooth
• Cramp low blood sugar electrolyte depletion dehydration irritability
• Bone spongy formed phase fracture repair hard/bony callus
• Enlist osoregulators freshwater animals marine vertebrates
• Bony fishes aka teleosts are
• Ions methods elimination salts marine osmoregulators kidneys remove
• Anhydrobiosis tolerance high degree dehydration desert animals special
• Harmful effects ammonia highly soluble raises ph interferes
• Types fractures simple compound skin penetrated wound formed
• Strange structure formed healing bone fracture spongy trabeculae
• Ligaments dislocation joints effect solution trauma diseases rheumatoid
• Sprains common sites treatment ankle wrist knee rested
• Study muscles called myology of
• Muscle covering bundle fascicle fibres epimysium perimysium endomysium
• Length ureters cm of 25
• Study diseases urinary tract called urology
• Entire cavity kidney called renal sinus
• Efferent comparison diameters afferent arterioles half
• Ph urine of 4.8 to
• Bacteria simple utis e coli proteus vugaris klebsiella
• Positive gonorrhoea/urethritis gram negative neisseria gonorrhoeae
• Syphilis treponema palladium spirochaete cause
• Times utis common females males
• Infection kidney called pyelonephritis of
• Infection bladder called cystitis of
• Nephritis pyelonephritis inflammation glomerulus infection kidney
• Chronic renal failure high blood pressure diabetes mellitus
• Fluid direction blood flow enters leaves hemodialysis dialysate
• Matching donor kidneys selected basis human leucocytes antigen
• Infection give yeast humans candidiasis candidia albicans mouth
• Hormone discovered baylis starling secretin
• Examples hormones proteinous peptide proteins insulin glucagon sth
• Chemical nature adrenaline catecholamine of
• Ductless glands human body no
• Hormones anterior pituitary secrete how
• Rate graves disease symptoms oversecretion t3 t4 weight
• Addison's disease undersecretion cortical hormones symptoms general metabolic
• Phenylalanine converted enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase
• Hormone somatotrophin secretion controlled growth releasing factor ghrf
• Increases growth hormone aka effects body somatotrophin uptake
• Secretion msh median lobe pituitary hormone produced control
• Location thyroid gland lobes side trachea larynx
• Parathyroid glands location posterior side thyroid
• Classic symptom hyperthyroidism exophthalmia the
• Muscle secretion insulin hypoglycemia upsets nerve functioning cramps
• Deamination amino acids produces products pyruvic ammonia
• Effect low high blood calcium levels muscles nerves
• High glucose urine called glycosuria
• Cells insulin uptake glucose body esp skeletal muscle
• Factors controlling release adrenaline sympathetic nervous system
• Composition saliva water mucin proteoglycan salts cl⁻ lysozyme
• Embryonic layers ectoderm endoderm part separates cavities epiblast
• Composition animal egg yolk phospholipids proteins fats
• Bird eggs cleavage occurs blastodisc small disc cytoplasm
• Gastrulation begin 15th day fertilization
• Slit formed gastrulation called primitive streak
• Neurulation begin 1st month development
• Motor sensory nerves origin brain spinal cord neural
• Conclusions delayed nucleation experiment roux weismann hypothesis wrong
• Factors differentiation cells inductive interactions cytoplasmic segregation morphogenetic
• Study aging called gerontology of
• Duration infancy month neonatal years child
• Times human cells divide x number body
• Risk factors osteoporosis cigarette alcohol low calcium intake
• Fake sexual reproduction called parasexuality genetic recombination
• Factors contribute secondary aging diseases disuse lack exercise
• Study abnormal body development teratology
• Location brain ventricles of the
• Cerebral hemispheres connected band axons corpus callosum
• Spinal cord ends vertebrae lumbar l1 l2
• Bw pons location function medulla midbrain acts bridge
• Commissure wings butterfly connected dorsal grey ventral white
• Number spinal nerves human pairs
• Cranial nerves pairs no of
• Sympathetic nerves spinal composition nervous system cranial t1
• Taste receptors group modified epithelial cells pores hair
• Pain receptors location structure stimuli epidermis naked dendrites
• Endings nerve heat detection called ruffini
• Cold receptors called krause end bulbs
• Pigments cyanobacteria chlorophyll phycobilins majority blue phycocyanin
• Filamentous form cyanobacteria trichome linear row inside mucilaginous
• Parasite smallest bacteria names shape size phytoplasma plant
• Shape shifter bacteria called give pleomorphic h pylori
• Treponema palladium shape spirochete
• Functions bacterial outer covering protection phagocytosis present form
• Outer membrane present characteristics gram negative bacteria extra
• Neisseria meningitidis shape coccus
• Pseudomonas shape bacillus
• Bacteria store food form glycogen fats proteins
• Size bacterial flagellum 20μm long 20nm thick
• Protein present bacterial flagella type globular fibrous flagellin
• Form actinomycetes gram positive/negative method growth endospores/exospore/cyst positive
• Type spore/cyst complex resistant long survive endospores thousands
• Flagella present sides bacteria amphitrichous
• Tuft flagella present side bacteria lophotrichous
• Gliding motility shown examples method movement cyanobacteria myxobacteria
• Examples saprotrophic bacteria pseudomonas azotobacter aerobic
• Bacteria examples chemoautotrophic sulphur nitrifying
• Oxidized photosynthetic bacteria requirements byproducts co² h²s sunlight
• Organisms show budding yeast bacteria porifera cnidarians
• Average generation time bacterial cells grow reproduce minutes
• Outermost layer stomach serosa vertical peritoneum
• Denitrifying bacteria function examples convert nitrates back atmospheric
• Meant bioremediation removal degradation environmental pollutants living organisms
• Biodegradable plastics made bacteria poly-b-hydroxybutyrate poly-b-hydroxyvalerate
• Causative agent cholera vibrio cholerae
• Causative agent typhoid salmonella typhi
• Vitamin produced intestinal bacteria k types b including
• Motion type exhibited cyanobacteria gliding
• Electromagnetic radiations wavelength killing microbes nm
• Rays generally sterilisation gamma which
• Heat sensitive compounds sterilised membrane filters antibiotics seras
• Recommended temperatures refrigerator freezer 10-15°c days 10°c 18°c
• Size bacterium spirochaeta plicatilis 250um long 0.75um thick
• Living cyanobacteria mode free epiphytic symbiotic unicellular colonial/filamentous
• Cyanobacteria gram positive/negative cyclic/non-cyclic phosphorylation negative non-cyclic ps
• Pairs salivary glands parotid submandibular sublingual
• Total length gi tract 9m
• Colon part called sigmoid last
• Carbohydrates digested oral cavity what
• Triggers swallowing reflex pressure food pharynx
• Stimulus peristalsis expansion tubular walls
• Length osesophagus 25cm of
• Region parietal cells present stomach pyloric
• Waves chyme stomach mixing churning action formation peristaltic
• Small intestine held mesentery double layered fold peritoneum
• Length small intestine 6m of
• Length thickness duodenum 25cm long 5cm thick
• Length ileum 3.5m of
• Size villi 1.5mm of 0.5
• Villi made cells simple columnar epithelium
• Junction intestine bw small large structures ileocecal aka
• Ph pancreas of 8
• Secretion intestinal glands enterokinase aminopeptidase dipeptidase sucrase maltase
• Dipeptidase erepsin example of a
• Structures absorption fats small intestine composition micelles droplets
• Enzymes bound microvilli peptidases which
• Acids enter cells amino absorption proteins small intestine
• Length colon 1.8m of 1.5
• Length caecum inferiorly 6cm of
• Length vermiform appendix 9cm of
• Substance large intestine secrete bicarbonates
• Anal sphincter voluntary control internal/external external
• Lobes liver major minor 2
• Length vagina cm of 8
• Sodium examples bile salts glycocholate taurocholate
• Materials stored liver copper iron fats glycogen vitamins
• Liver produces protein albumin amino acids
• Liver location gallbladder relative inferior surface
• Enterokinase secreted intestinal glands is
• Study disease aetiology of causes
• Ulcers h pylori gastric duodenal
• Cimetidine drug reduces hcl production
• Loperamide antidiarrheal agent
• Neurotic disorder related eating bulimia nervosa
• Long recovery anorexia years how
• Nervosa stay hospital strict supervision bulimia
• Enzyme present hepatitis b virus reverse transcriptase
• Viral plant diseases how many
• Virus warts papovirus which causes
• Genome bacteriophages strands ssdna of
• Steps viral infection process adsorption penetration genome injection
• Digestive enzyme present viruses lysozyme
• Lysogeny meaning integration phage dna bacterial chromosome prophage
• Scientist major work prions viruses stanley prusiner
• Diseases fatal neurodegenerative transmitted particle kuru humans mad
• Symptoms hepatitis fever jaundice vomiting nausea anorexia dark
• Treatment hepatitis c combination alpha interferon ribavirin
• Hepatitis b aka infectious serum
• Vaccines hepatitis viruses inactivated alive virus b biotechnology
• Enzymes present hiv reverse transcriptase integrase protease
• Genes hiv functions total code structural proteins
• Treatment aids called anti-retroviral therapy art combination medicines
• Peculiarities hiv structure protein shell beneath envelope made
• Virus flu influenza occurs epidemic form
• Virus common cold adenovirus which
• Common childhood disease adult population equally susceptible measles
• Polio virus type enterovirus/picornavirus
• Lobules present testis no of
• Tubular network inside testicles sperms undergo maturation rete
• Sperm duct aka vas deferens
• Location prostate gland encircles urethra bladder
• Location bulbourethral glands junction ejaculatory duct urethra
• Shape sertoli cells elongated of
• Hormone growth development germinal epithelium male reproductive system
• Size ovaries 5cm long 3cm wide
• Length oviducts cm long of
• Layers uterus perimetrium myometrium endometrium
• Days fertile female menstrual cycle
• Oligospermia sperm count 20million/ml of
• Ivf pre-embryos implanted female days fertilization cells stage
• Pregnancy time miscarriage occur 28th week
• Infection gonorrhoea site effect mucous membrane urinogenital tract
• Detritus organic waste what is
• Aerobic nitrifying bacteria anaerobic require well-aerated soil
• Nitrogen fixation performed atmosphere what
• Nitrogen fixed bacteria atmospheric of
• N fixing bacteria symbiotic rhizobium
• Nitrogen cycle decomposition step divided ammonification nitrification
• Pick destroy individuals referred culling
• Acid rain linked humans called anthropogenic sources
• N s oxides emitted human activities
• Aka stone cancer acid rain
• Population policy pakistan announced 11th july
• Term chromosome proposed waldeyer was
• Thickness nucleosome 10nm of
• Thickness chromatin fibre 30nm of
• Thickness chromatid 700nm of
• Term gene proposed wilhelm johanson
• Bacterial cells pellet supernatant centrifugation
• Primosome complex consisting enzymes primase dna helicase
• Functions dna polymerase replaces primers repairing process
• Polymerase dna exonuclease which is
• Rna splicing introns removed exons left
• Alpha maltose beta glucose contains
• Alpha beta sucrose fructose glucose
• Translation incoming trnas bind ribosome initiation factor elongation
• Translation terminated substance release factors
• Male xo-xy pattern sex determination female species xo
• Muscle muscular dystrophy lack dystrophin protein calcium leaks
• Gene role skin colour humans melanocytes b codes
• Major blood groups minor how
• Gene rh blood group system d
• Glycolipids presence myelin sheath chloroplast membrane
• Chromosomal stains acetocarmine aceto-orcin
• Ion present nucleus mg in
• Microbodies peroxysomes glyoxysomes what are
• Glyoxysomes found function seedling stage oil seed plants
• Water jellyfish in 99
• Composition middle lamella pectin primary wall pectic acids
• Rna prokaryotes eukaryotes of in
• Calcium human body of in
• Phosphorus human body of in
• Monoterpene menthol eg
• Triterpene units ambrein no of
• Freshwater mussel anodonta
• Pigment present red algae phycoerythrin type phycobilin
• Composition pili pilin protein of
• Spirochetes gram positive negative are
• Symptoms tetany increased excitability neurons muscle twitches convulsions
• Time required soft callus formation weeks
• Time required hard callus/spongy bone formation months
• Type hepatitis spread sexual contact b
• Aldosterone secreted outer portion adrenal cortex
• Final result obtained dna fingerprinting form autoradiograph
• Central branch sensory neuron axon
• Chromosome gene albinism located for
• Gene gout located chromosome ch-x
• Phospholipids n-base phosphatidic acid =
• Structure glucose ring of
• Chromosomes mosquito no of in
• Chromosomes corn no of in
• Chromosomes mice no of in
• Charge proteins positive negative most
• Major component chromosomes protein the
• Lambda phages dna bacteriophages what
• Colour pea plant flowers purple
• Compostion chordeae tendineae shape papillary muscles thin strong
• Macrocystis brown algae is an
• Migration plants land start million years ago
• Fungi begin evolve million years ago
• Plants sperms motile eggs large immotile oogamous
• Examples bryophytes mosses liverworts hornworts
• Enlist groups gymnosperms conifers cycads ginkgoes gnetophytes
• Plants groups heterosporous homosporous seedless mosses ferns seeded
• Protective covering seed called integument
• Part plant forms seed ovule
• Groups angiosperms monocots dicots two
• Spanish moss belong group angiosperm
• Waxy material prevention water loss plants cutin forms
• Carnivorous plants grow marshy places lack nitrogenous salts
• Adaptations carnivorous plants modified leaves capturing insects/small organisms
• Venus flytrap dionaea muscipula
• Pitcher plant nepenthes pupurea
• Sundew drosera intermedia
• Mpa typical cell solute potential
• Cells root regulate movement solutes xylem endodermal due
• Regenerative capabilities protists common protozoa
• Conc co² air of in
• Thickness aorta 2.3cm of
• Thickness arterioles 0.2mm μm of
• General length capillaries 1mm of
• Thickness venules μm of 40
• Blood pressure resistance affect variation arterial diameter vasoconstriction
• Covered separations bw chambers heart surface called sulci
• Opening atrium coronary sinus the
• Space bw outer nuclear membranes called perinuclear continuous
• Septa heart no of in
• Sulci/grooves heart no of in
• Function parathormone increases calcium levels blood
• Calcitonin secreted thyroid gland is
• Days fertile female menstrual cycle
• Polymerase responsible proofreading dna which
• Polar phospholipids attracted compounds amphipathic
• D symbol rh blood group system
• Prokaryotic blue green algae eukaryotic
• Enzymes lysosomes how many are
• Equal intensities light colour photosynthesis red
• Diameter length muscle cells μm thick 1mm 40mm
• Opening kidney cavity called renal hilum
• Ferns aka filicinae are
• Covering crysophyta aka diatoms transparent shells consisting halves
• Give moss bryophyte funaria an
• Give liverwort marchantia an example
• Peat moss belongs group bryophyte
• Moss primary vegetation arctic tundra reindeer
• Menopause generally occurs age at
• Somatostatin released hypothalamus is by
• Thyroid hormone called thyroxin t4 tetra iodo thyronine
• Peptidoglycan murein aka mucopeptide and
• Rna enzymes splicing spliceosomes large rna-protein complex ligase
• Classification sea horse bony fish osteichthyes
• Meaning anima soul breath of
• Animals hydroskeletons annelids worms which
• Digestive system roundworms complete openings mouth anus
• Excretory system roundworms canals protonephridia
• Excretory system sponges in none
• Excretory system cnidaria absent in
• Anus molluscs empties mantle cavity
• Nervous system porifera sensory cells coordinate flow water
• Animal groups respire skins annelids molluscs amphibians
• Phyla skeleton animals have which
• Prostomium present annelids is in
• Invertebrates endoskeletons echinoderms molluscs sepia
• Mollusc endoskeleton sepia which has
• Phyla open circulatory systems molluscs
• System circulatory echinoderms blood vascular reduced
• Protists form cysts protozoans which
• Phylum exhibits autotomy echinodermata which
• Stinging cells called cnidocytes are
• Stinging cell organelles called nematocysts
• Animals exhibit regeneration porifera cnidaria annelids crustaceans echinoderms
• Animals larval forms sponges molluscs annelids arthropods echinoderms
• Larvae echinoderms bipinnaria brachiolaria name
• Living antiseptics non-living surfaces on
• Types rod bacterial shapes bacilli diplobacilli streptobacilli coccobacilli
• Combo rod spherical shapes bacteria called coccobacillus
• Thickness chromosome 1400nm μm of
• Type terpene vitamin diterpene which
• Strand transcription template aka anti-sense
• Phin phic hormones hypothalamus anterior pituitary
• Hormones released kidneys renin erythropoietin calcitriol
• Part cns ganglia a of
• Word anima protozoa derived language latin breath soul
• Phyla kingdom animalia no of
• Diploblasts organs do have no
• Radial symmetry considered adaptation sessile life
• Coenocytic meaning multinucleated
• Syngamy meaning fusion cells fertilization
• Protists reproduce method reproduction asexually sexually gametes
• Protists motile/sessile motile most are
• Choanoflagellate marine freshwater protozoan a
• Parasitic protozoa aka sporozoa apicomplexans
• Trychonymphas zooflagellates present gut termites mutualism
• Vorticella stentor classification ciliates protozoa
• Cell euglenoids walls do have
• Diatoms live marine fresh water
• Habitat phaeophyta brown algae cool marine water
• Habitat rhodophyta warm marine water shallow deep
• Length red algae meter long
• Similar similarities bw plants charophyceans high cellulose wall
• Myxo/oomycota cell walls made cellulose
• Algae human food fertilizers brown
• Organism research photosynthesis chlorella which
• Organism study cellular processes physarum polycephalum
• Body fungus called mycelium the
• Give aseptate fungus rhizopus an
• Thylakoids granum no of in
• Saprotrophic fungi anchor food rhizoids modified hyphae
• Pines firs type mycorrhizae ecto
• Ascomycotes aka sac fungi are
• Basidiomycotes aka club fungi are
• Heterokaryotic hyphae dikaryotic fungal cells ascomycotes basidiomycotes produced
• Chromosomes penicillium type organism fungus pair
• Defective phenyl ketonuria enzyme absent
• Traits drosophila studied morgan no
• Parental ratio appears typical dihybrid cross conducted traits
• Recombinant frequency research purposes determining location genes chromosomes
• Traits genes present x y chromosome called considered
• Generation time drosophila weeks of
• Give x-y linked trait drosophila bobbed gene
• Photosynthetic progressive modes nutrition earliest organisms earth absorptive
• Archaea tolerate temp 120°c can
• Mendel give laws inheritance when
• Time darwin spend galapagos tortoise islands months
• Principle geography written motivation book author charles lyell
• South america rabbits does have
• Gels electrophoresis agarose dna longer bases polyacrylamide shorter
• Organisms define transgenic free living foreign gene inserted
• Transgenic bacteria insulin production formed year
• Biotechnological products diagnosis diseases monoclonal antibodies dna/rna probes
• Enlist vectors gene therapy plasmids genetically modified viruses
• Insertion modified cells liver instrument inserted catheter portal
• Type ribose present nucleic acids alpha beta β-ribose
• Bacteria ice crystal forming aka changed frost-plus frost-minus
• Scientist contributed palaeontology cuvier which
• Ddntp full form dideoxy nucleo side triphosphate
• Automated dna sequencing mechanism fluorescently labelled ddntps reactions
• Minute pcr steps temp time denaturation 94°c primer
• Restriction endonuclease produces blunt cut sma
• Stop enlist codons uga uag uaa ugg
• Iwanowski discovered tmv filterable what
• Viruses destroyed uv light can
• Complete viral particle called virion
• Dsdna virus poxvirus example
• Virus ssrna acts template mrna synthesis orthomyxovirus influenza
• Number capsomeres polio virus of
• Retroviruses virus reverse transcriptase enzyme hepatitis b
• Scientist gave classification viruses groups david baltimore
• Virus derived word language latin venom meaning poison
• Cells hosts hiv helper t-lymphocytes macrophages central nervous
• Inside uncoating hiv coat occurs cell
• Composition endocardium simple squamous epithelium layer connective tissue
• Tissue gel proteoglycan filaments interstitial fluid
• Endoplasmic reticulum cisternae does the
• Electrons nadh donate how many
• Photolysis water molecule releases electrons 2e
• Plastoquinone carry metals iron does
• Plasmolysis meaning loss water cell
• Phyla prostists of no 27
• Present type glycocalyx streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria capsule s-type
• Fever +ve ve feedback mechanis positive
• Ascending loop henle thicker descending
• Protein covers binding site actin resting state muscle
• Genes alleles some have up
• Pea plant dominant colours pod seed green yellow
• Composition chlyomicrons triglycerides cholesterol phospholipids
• Antigen composition protein
• Antigens aka immunogen are
• Antigens polypeptides s atoms bridges
• Cells rejection transplants due t
• Sterilisation physical methods control microorganisms
• Microbicidal microbistatic immediately kills microbes inhibits reproduction maintains
• Word vaccine derived vacca cow latin
• Rabies aka hydrophobia is
• Bryophytes true roots shoots stem
• Krebs cycle succinate oxaloacetate from
• Vestigial organs man no of
• Abo blood groups start expression birth embryonic stage
• Blood clumping due wrong transfusion called agglutination
• Chromosomes chromatin thread structures are
• Chromosomes type microscope light arms centromere visible
• Nucleic acids discovered pus cell fish sperm
• Chargaff find purines pyrimidines what
• Arg mutations cluster areas the
• Subunits rna polymerase structure functional components called 2α
• Part rrna mrna attaches protein ribosome
• Nucleotide sequence trna n-formyl methionine uac
• Trna attaches ribosome mrna which
• Larger peptidyl transferase present smaller subunit
• Translation terminated proteins release factors bind nonsense codons
• Release factors cells prokaryotes eukaryotes
• Initiation factor types cells prokaryotes eukaryotes
• Initiator aug recognized prokaryotes specific purine-rich sequence
• Receptors aka transducers are
• Control system aka integrator the
• Pressure/stretch receptors walls blood vessels called baroreceptors
• Branched axons unbranched motor neurons
• Nodes ranvier aka neurofibril of
• Calcium abundant inside neuron outside
• Serotonin dopamine chemical composition functions neurotransmitters hormones biogenic
• Examples inhibitory neurotransmitters gaba gamma amino butyric acid
• Soluble hormones insoluble are or
• Lh released menstrual cycle 14th day
• Effect oxytocin mammary glands ¹smooth muscle contraction ²dilation
• Tetany undersecretion parathormone of cause
• Prolactin secretion controlled inhibiting fmfactor pif
• Infundibulum composition blood vessels neuron fibres
• Prolactin aka luteotrophic hormone is
• Electrons m shell chromium of
• Type carbs attached plasma membrane branched linear oligosaccharides
• Major component plasma membrane organic compound protein
• Enzymatic function plasma membrane adenylate cyclase converts atp
• Cytoplasm water what of is
• Acidic ph lysosomes basic of
• Secondary lysosomes aka endolysosomes are
• Vacuoles derived organelles endoplasmic reticulum golgi complex plasma
• Membrane vacuole aka tonoplast of
• Membrane porins present mitochondria chloroplasts outer acts sieve
• Inwards mitochondrial membrane folded outwards
• Type(s rna is/are present mitochondria types
• Shape chloroplast disc-like of
• Grana chloroplast no of in
• Ribosomes nucleus bear outer membrane continuous rer
• Porins special proteins responsible transport type stalkless particles
• Ion present nucleus mg which
• Thinner centromere portion chromosome thicker normal
• Function telomeres prevent chromosomes attaching ends
• Artificial sweeteners tagatose sucralose eg
• Trace element needed life forms fe
• Age water seeds of in
• Age water brain of in
• Heptoses examples roles glucoheptose aldo sedoheptose keto intermediates
• Structure ribulose 5c keto-sugar of
• Stereoisomers glucose of no 16
• Structure galactose of
• Disaccharide found germinating seeds maltose
• Lactose sources milk cow human formed byproduct cheese
• Ring structure galactose of
• Β lactose α subunits contains
• Α maltose β subunits contains
• Elaioplasts leucoplasts store lipids what
• Glycogen difference bw starch structure wise branching due
• Abundant organic compound earth cellulose
• Tristearin formula c⁵⁷h¹¹⁰o⁶
• Phospholipids simple complex derived lipids complex/compound
• C-atoms lauric acid source coconut oil
• C-atoms oleic linoleic linolenic acid
• List source oleic acid olive oil
• Phospholipid similar structure diglyceride is
• Arrange types rna decreasing order sizes rrna mrna
• Trna identified how many have
• Simple sugar composition glycolipids complex lipids alcohol long
• Myelin sheath conjugated molecule glycolipids
• Conjugated molecules present chloroplast membranes glycolipids
• Enzymes increase rate reaction of
• Rna enzymes called ribozymes are
• Enzymes quaternary structure can have
• Absolute specificity enzyme catalyzes substrate urease sucrase maltase
• Functions carbonic anhydrase attaches 4o² hb regulates formation
• Temperature sensitive molecules called thermolabile
• Optimum ph trypsin of 8
• Enzymes optimum temp human bacterial 37-38°c +70°c washing
• Competitive penicillin non-competitive is or
• Type inhibition supports lock key model competitive
• Inhibition feedback type reversible non-competitive
• Pyrrole ring chlorophyll b groups 2nd
• Flavoprotein enzyme nadp reductase what
• Role enolase glycolysis removes water 2-pg produce pep
• Complex pyruvate composition enzyme responsible oxidation dehydrogenase cofactors
• Decarboxylation oxidative krebs cycle sequence events oxidation nad
• Fumarate malate change occurs enzyme h²o absorbed fumarase
• Atp synthetase aka oxysome stalked particle
• Cytochrome copper cyt-a³ in etc
• People living aids million no
• People died aids million of
• People infected aids annually million
• Organisms ammonotelic fishes protozoa sponges coelenterates
• Nephrons cortical what of are
• Darker nucleus lighter surrounding cytoplasm
• Basic nucleus stained acidic dyes
• Hyphomicrobium shape spiral
• Cell wall absent bacteria mycoplasma
• Cell wall composition archaea proteins polysaccharides glycoproteins
• Dye nucleoid bacteria visible staining feulgen
• Bacterial species diseases man how
• Give microaerophilic bacterium campylobacter eg
• Spirochetes aerobic anaerobic are or
• Nutrients stored bacteria glycogen fats sulphur phosphate
• Ser synthesizes fats oils or
• Diabetes mellitus derangement nerves muscles
• Motor neurons bipolar multipolar are
• Lysosomes observed de duve were
• Wisdom teeth vestigial molar 3rd
• Menthone functional group ketone contains
• Age carbohydrates bacterial mammalian cells bacteria mammals
• Photons strike photosystem photolysis water
• Amino acids codon methionine tryptophan
• Blood clot +ve ve feedback mechanism positive
• Metabolism n-bases produces n-wastes xanthine hypoxanthine allantoin urea
• Muscles earliest evolved present animal kingdom smooth
• Pea plant undergoes cross fertilization self-fertilisation
• Rule combined probability independent events calculated product
• O clock plant scientific mirabilis jalapa
• Flowers f1 f2 generation o clock plant pink
• Abo system gene letter i represents isohaemagglutinogen
• Blood group antibodies aka agglutinins
• Production anti-a anti-b antibodies started early embryonic stage
• Crossing evolution brings genetic variations offspring gene frequency
• White substance nucleic acids discovered f.meischer initially referred
• Role ssb dna replication single stranded binding proteins
• Type ring structure draw haworth fischer
• Rna polymerase type functions synthesize rrna mrna trna
• Ribosome moves translation mrna which
• Amino end acid activation intermediate formed by-products reacts
• Atp translation nucleotide mrna molecules reduced amp adp
• Mrna poly-cistronic type cells prokaryotes act template proteins
• Types cells human body of
• Ability tasting aka gustation the
• Receptors present hypothalamus thermoreceptors osmoreceptors basically chemoreceptors
• Schwann cells/neuroglial cells aka neurolemmocyte
• Speed effect thickness axon conductance thicker faster
• Multipolar unipolar bipolar match motor sensory inter neurons
• Axons interneurons thickness myelination thinner non-myelinated
• Broken neurotransmitters job immediately enzymes adrenaline monoamine oxidase
• Synaptic membrane vesicles proces release neurotransmitter axon nerve
• Electrical synapses synaptic cleft 0.2nm action potential previous
• Hormonal imbalance kidney stones undersecretion calcitonin oversecretion parathormone
• Secretion tsh controlled thyrotrophin releasing factor trf
• Anterior pituitary hormone(s released direct nervous stimulus hypothalamus
• Wall position secondary cell plasma membrane primary
• Membrane role cholesterol plasma stabilizes phospholipids high body
• Composition receptors cell membrane proteins glycolipids glycoproteins
• Metabolic synthetic functions ser synthesis oils phospholipids steroids
• Autophagy vesicle formed organelle eaten originates endoplasmic reticulum
• Solution inside central vacuole called cell sap
• Glycosidic linkages cellulose β-1,4 in
• Type granules present mitochondrial matrix ca³(po³)² calcium phosphate
• Etioplasts type leucoplasts exposure light develop chloroplasts
• Location leucoplasts parenchyma cells root stem seeds
• Colour composition stroma colourless proteinaceous rna dna ribosomes
• Thylakoid lamellae types smaller granal green larger stromal
• Nuclear pore composition specialized transport protein nucleoporin
• Nuclear lamina net-like arrangement protein filaments maintains shape
• Heterochromatin euchromatin takes stain appears darker
• Bioelements no of 25/92
• Trace elements age occurence less
• Lactic acid carbohydrate is a
• Give formula carbohydrate rhamnose c⁶h¹²o⁵)n
• Tetroses examples roles erythrose aldo erythrulose keto intermediates
• Stereoisomer glucose h-groups penultimate side d-talose
• Arrangement h carbon types stereoisomers enantiomers mirro-images epimers
• Lactose subunit utilizes anomeric carbon atom glycosidic bond
• Chitin homo hetero peptidoglycan polysaccharides murein
• Units α glycogen cellulose β α-1,4 starch composed
• Proteins magnesium do contain yes
• Amino growth acid occurs c-terminal n-terminal added c
• Base point mutations change pair
• Fatty acids found nature how
• C-atoms myristic acid source butter
• Inositol chemical nature amino alcohol
• Substance released dna condensation pyrophosphate cleaved water releases
• Middle loop trna nucleotides of
• Loop side recognition functions trna θ ribosome d
• Conjugated molecules present chloroplasts nuclei lipoproteins
• Blood group antigens composition glycoproteins
• Molecular mass enzymes million of
• Amino acids active site no
• Amino acids present active site enzyme aldolase glycine
• Enzymes follow induced fit model called regulatory allosteric
• Approximately reactions occurring cell time
• Shape graph effect temperature enzyme action draw
• Give enzyme works acidic basic media papain green
• Competitive antibodies antibiotics sulphonamides non-competitive
• Combine enzyme mode action common irreversible non-competitive inhibitors
• Threonine give feedback enzyme inhibition aspartate converted enzymatic
• Pyrrole ring phytol linked 4th propionic acid
• Pyrrole side chain chlorophyll linked ring methyl ester
• 3-pg 2-pg catalysed phosphoglycerate mutase

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