nMDCAT Biology (Pakistan)

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• Heat vaporisation water 574cal/g of
• Lysosomes observed de duve were
• Water molecules released glycolysis no
• Protozoa show sexual reproduction do
• Codon tryptophan ugg for
• Amino acid codons isoleucine which
• Amino acids coded codons how
• Amino acids coded codons how
• Sex chromosome klinefelter syndrome xxy
• Sex chromosome turner's syndrome xo
• O clock plant scientific mirabilis jalapa
• Proteins magnesium do contain yes
• Mesosomes shapes vesicles tubules lamellae
• Ploidy oosphere n of
• Ploidy oospore 2n of
• Motor neurons bipolar multipolar are
• Glycosidic linkages cellulose β-1,4 in
• Tail mrna cap 7-methyl gtp poly
• Parts photosystem antenna complex reaction center
• Root hairs provide total surface area provided
• Organisms release ammonia waste called ammonotelic
• Amount water required release 1g n urea ml
• Amount water required release 1g n uric acid
• Amount water required release 1g n ammonia ml
• Urea relative toxicity compared ammonia times toxic
• Special structure present midbrain reticular formation
• Thalamus receives sensory impulses smell
• Space bw left lungs called mediastinum
• Glycolysis aka meaning emp pathway embden mayerhof parnas
• Cycle acid kreb's aka citric tca tricarboxylic
• Arteries veins number pulmonary of
• Major groups protists there are
• Protists contractile vacuoles freshwater protozoa
• Duration life cycle yeast minutes
• Hours phase duration human cell life cycle total
• Microtubules types mitotic apparatus astral kinetochore polar
• Length chromosomes 0.25μm 50μm of
• Events g1 phase growth size enzyme synthesis dna
• Structures formed cytokinesis 1)animals 2)plants contractile ring cleavage
• Phragmoplast structure formed plants cell wall mitosis 1)formed
• Cancer result accumulation mutations somatic cells
• Cytokinesis started animal cells astral microtubules send signals
• Cancer cells overcome restrictions movement caused barriers basal
• Phase interphase meiosis lacks g2
• Paired homologous chromosomes prophase1 called tetrad bivalent
• Duration meiosis prophase1 stages leptotene zygotene hours pachytene
• Chromosomes h synapsis stages prophase1 meiosis 1)leptotene start
• Trisomy autosomal non-disjunction disorders mongolism/down edward patau
• Condition xyy jacob's syndrome name
• Absence survival molecules called results apoptosis trophic factors
• Commercial compound releases ethene ethephon applied rubber plants
• Plant hormone flowers fresh cytokinin
• Plant hormone brewing industry ga3 gibberellin promotes malting
• Acetic acid synthetic auxins names indole propionic naphthalene
• Composition microtubules mitotic apparatus tubulin protein traces rna
• Lens magnification microscope r m resolution types microsopes
• Age composition cell membrane lipids proteins
• Bacterial cell wall called sacculus
• Person study ribosomes palade first
• Number nuclear pores undifferentiated cells eggs erythrocytes pores/nucleus
• Area regions nucleolus peripheral granular precursors ribosomal subunits
• Number chromosomes chimpanzee frog drosophila pea potato onion
• Plants golgi complex called dictyosomes
• Functions cytoskeleton microtubules >organelles flagella cilia basal bodies
• Diameter chloroplasts μm of 4
• Percentage water living organisms of
• Age water bone cells of
• Age water brain cells in
• Water specific heat meaning 1cal/g 4.18j/g energy required
• Cell roles glycolipids glycoproteins extracellular matrix animals wall
• Names structures 3-c sugars c3h6o3 glyceraldehyde dihydroxyacetone
• Number carbon atoms monosaccharides nature thousands
• Glucose blood concentration 1g/l 0.08
• Calories energy required synthesis 10g glucose thousand sunlight
• Number monosaccharides oligosaccharides of in
• Structure fructose ring of
• Types ring structures pyranose memeber furanose member
• Examples polysaccharides dextrin agar pectin
• Types starch solubility water amylose hot amylopectin completely
• Carbon monosaccharides occurrence tetroses rare occur bacteria
• Carbon atoms melting point palmitic acid saturated 63.1°c
• Number fatty c-atoms acids branching max double bonds
• Melting point butyric acid 8°c
• Acid 18-c unsaturated fatty formula oleic ch3-(ch2)⁷-c=c-(ch2)⁷-cooh double
• Specific gravity fats oils of
• Common phospholipid phosphatidylcholine lecithin most
• Acid phosphoric components phopholipids phosphatidic glyerol fatty nitrogenous
• Long chain composition waxes mixture alkanes odd c25
• Dry mass abundant organic compound cells proteins
• Proteins amino acids make types
• Simplest amino acids 1)glycine r=h 2)alanine r=ch3
• Insulin structure scientist f sanger determined sequence amino
• Chains haemoglobin composition b total
• Helix number amino acids/turn binding force hydrogen bonding
• Nucleic acids discovered f meischer
• Nad stands function nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide coenzyme oxidation
• Picogram amount dna chicken carp
• Ages nitrogenous bases human dna adenine thymine guanine
• Microbe genome completely sequenced haemophilus influenzae
• Length trna nucleotides of 75
• Conc mrna of 3 to
• Conc trna of 10 to
• Conc rrna present ribosomes of
• Base pairs proteins e coli number 4.6m 4.3k
• Cellular secretions nature glycoprotein most
• Number proteins human body of
• Fibrous globular proteins 1)elasticity 2)solubility 3)crystallization elastic insoluble
• Loosely attached non-protein parts enzyme called coenzymes vitamins
• Enzyme succinic acid inhibition reactant product inhibitor dehydrogenase
• Optimum ph sucrase of 4.50
• Optimum ph enterokinase of 5.50
• Optimum ph salivary amylase of
• Optimum ph chymotrypsin of 7.00
• Optimum ph catalase of 7.6
• Optimum ph lipase of 9.0
• Optimum ph arginase of 9.7
• Functions co-factors act bridge enzyme substrate contribute directly
• Mosquito corn potato ferns number chromosomes peniciliium honeybee
• Person observe chromosomes walther fleming examining salamander larvae
• End types chromosomes wrt position centromere middle
• Chemical composition chromosomes proteins dna +associated rna
• Nucleotides single human chromosome million
• Books filled chromosome pages words/page
• Length stretched chromosome 5cm of
• Charge proteins composition histone +ve negative basic amino
• Nucleosome structure nucleotides wrap core histone proteins
• Scientist discovered structure nucleic acids nucleotides p.a levene
• Dimensions dna nm width 2nm turn duplex 3.4nm
• Types chromatin heterochromatin euchromatin of
• Dna polymerase-iii size wrt polymerase rate work structure
• Length primer enzyme production rna nucleotides pcr primase
• Fragments lagging strand length okazaki nucleotides eukaryotes prokaryotes
• Salt messelson stahl ultra-centrifuge isotopic tracer cscl cesium
• Trna present human body no
• Loop recognition structure trna ends sequence >and function
• Examples binding site rna polymerase called prokaryotes eukaryotes
• Mrna gc pairs sequence transcription stop signal dna
• Scientists tested codons marshall nirenberg philip leader har
• Codons nonsense stop uag uga uaa
• Amino acid codes methionine mitochondrial dna aua isoleucine
• Codons comparison normal mitochondrial of
• Activation enzyme protein synthesis called number cell aminoacyl-trna
• Chemically modified start codon n-formyl methionine
• Promoter region located wrt gene upstream
• Classification corn of
• Scientific common amalta cassia fistula golden shower
• Scientific potato solanum tuberosum name
• Scientific brinjal solanum melangena name
• Created kingdom protista ernst hackel
• Differentiated procariotique eucariotique e-chatton who
• Pass found bacteria virus charles chamberlain porcelain filters
• Virus purified stanley crystallizing tobacco mosaic
• Nm range size viruses examples parvovirus poxvirus
• Size viruses wrt bacteria times smaller
• Number capsomeres herpes virus of
• Number capsomeres adenovirus of in
• Mumps virus called shape paramyxovirus
• Receptor hiv composition present host identical rna strands
• Loss symptoms aids severe pneumonia rare vascular cancer
• Viruses green stuff the name
• Thylakoids granum no of in
• Chloroplasts mesophyll cell no of
• Chloroplast density leaves half million square millimeter
• Isotopic tracer predicted source oxygen photosynthesis experiment performed
• Orange types carotenoids colours carotenes red xanthophylls yellow
• Chlorophyll head tail names formula porphyrin ring pyrrole
• Chlorophyll side group formula colour presence ch3 c⁵⁵h⁷²o⁵n⁴mg
• Green chlorophyll b side group formula colour presence
• Action spectrum obtained working method tw engelmann spirogyra
• Photosynthesis effective wavelengths 430nm 670nm violet-blue orange-red
• Photosynthesis terrestrial plants is done
• Area leaf surface stomata cover
• Light falling leaves absorbed plants
• Types photosystems ps-i p700 ps-ii p680 earlier
• Electron carriers present ps-2 plastoquinone fully embedded metals
• Ps-1 ferredoxin iron protein nadp+ reductase enzyme
• Cyclic phosphorylation sequence
• Protons pumped atp synthesis photosynthesis respiration thylakoid lumen
• Calvin cycle
• Product carbon fixation 3-phosphoglycerate 3-pg aka phosphoglyceric acid
• Abundant protein earth rubisco ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase
• Glycolysis occurs part cytoplasm cytosol
• Energy present terminal p-bond atp kcal/mol
• Glycolysis flow diagram 1,3-bisphophoglycerate dehydration
• Diagrammatic representation kreb's cycle oxaloacetate glutarate succinate fumarate
• Reduction diagrammatic representation respiratory electron transport chain q
• Regulation respiration inhibition activation relations
• Size bronchioles 1mm diameter of
• Composition bronchioles cartilage circular smooth muscles mucous membrane
• Alveolar surface respiratory distress syndrome missing material time
• Passageways nasal cavity total passages
• Number estimate alveoli lungs millions
• Normal average human breathing rate exercise times minute
• Ribs move functioning muscles intercostal contraction outward inspiration
• Haemoglobin releases o² pressure mmhg
• Blood maximum amount oxygen absorbed human atm air
• O² pressure lungs saturation haemoglobin normal conditions partial
• Normal blood ph 7.4
• Transport co² methods carboxyhaemoglobin plasma proteins sodium bicarbonate
• Blood co² 100ml concentration arterial venous arteries 50ml
• Cancer called carcinoma is also
• Lung cancer affect smoking chances carcinogens present times
• Increase oxygen carrying capacity blood caused presence haemoglobin
• Co² inhaled exhaled air in
• Number iron atoms/protein haemoglobin myoglobin
• Litres exchange total lung capacity residual volume sleep
• Colour normal haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin purple-red oxy bright red
• Myoglobin releases o² pressure 20mmhg
• Oils fats unsaturated saturated =
• Root plant branches total length highly branched number
• Family plants deepest roots depth prosopis trees leguminous
• Transport methods minerals enter root contribution active diffusion/osmosis
• Order layers plant roots epidermis cortex endodermis casparian
• Mycorrhizae present families plants angiosperms flowering
• Uptake minerals facilitated mycorrhizae fungal association phosphorus trace
• Relative importance pathways apoplast important symplast imp endodermis
• Proposed cohesion tension theory dixon
• Pull transpirational water height 200m
• Speed water xylem vessels wrt height 1mh-¹ 8mh-¹
• Plant transpired age total water utilized body
• Kpa pressure generated roots ascent sap
• Guttation called occurrence exudation grass strawberry leaves
• Water secreting glands plants guttation hydathodes
• Due imbibition volume germinating seed increases times
• Plants bleeding observed season spring grape wine palm
• Age transpiration stomata of from
• Age transpiration cuticle of from
• Age transpiration lenticels of from
• Types leaves examples isobilateral lily maize dorsiventral stomata
• Side thickness guard cell concave thick outer convex
• Hypothesis stomatal opening called starch sugar h van
• Rate affect temperature transpiration doubles 10°c 40°-45°c stomata
• Function role hormones stomatal regulation produced performs high
• Cells components phloem tissue sieve tube companion parenchyma
• Source biennial storage organ acting annual perennial beetroot
• Phloem feeder animal weapon material produced insects aphids
• Composition phloem sap dry matter sucrose nitrogenous compounds
• Velocity sugar molecules phloem diffusion pressure flow 1m
• Theory mechanism phloem translocation pressure flow ernst munch
• Phloem symplast pathways sucrose moving source apoplast sink
• Weight body blood 1/12th total
• Composition blood plasma cells cell-like bodies volume
• Proteins involved blood clotting process prothrombin catalyst fibrinogen
• Plasma proteins synthesized liver antibodies lymphocytes
• Model membrane older cell called unit lipid bilayer
• Organic nutrients present blood glucose fats amino acids
• Plasma composition blood water proteins mineral ions nacl
• Million conc rbcs human body numerous blood cell
• Composition rbcs haemoglobin enzymes salts proteins
• Site rbc formation adults embryos red bone marrow
• Lifespan rbcs method death months disintegrate liver spleen
• Wbcs conc blood 1mm³ of
• Formed types wbcs methods production granulocytes neutrophils eosinophils
• Diameter thickness rbc 7-8μm wide 2nm thick
• Cells blood arise hemopoietic stem
• Platelets aka composition/origin thrombocytes membrane bound cytoplasmic fragments
• Conc platelets blood mm³ of
• Neutrophil size shape conc functions 2x rbcs nucleus
• Release basophils size shape conc functions 2x rbcs
• Eosinophil size shape conc functions 2x rbcs bilobed
• Monocyte size shape conc functions 2x 3x rbcs
• Lymphocytes size shape conc functions lifespan slightly larger
• Macrophages monocytes converted stay hours blood enter tissues
• Separations bw adjacent cardiac cells called intercalated discs
• Chambers valve bw left heart arteries bicuspid tricuspid
• Ventricle left thickness wrt times thicker
• Aorta bifurcates arteries supply blood leg iliac
• Atrioventricular valves kind/material strands regulation flaps attached papillary
• Number heartbeats lifetime billion of
• Duration cardiac cycle of 0.8
• Closing valves sound produced heart sources lubb-dubb lubb
• Delay av conduction mechanism heart location imp sites
• Composition sino-atrial node small number diffusely oriented cardiac
• Osmotic pressure plasma proteins maintain blood provide colloid
• Proteins protective produced blood function interferons antitoxins protect
• Failure blue babies aka closure interatrial foramen constriction
• Arteries risk narrowing hardening called conditions involved atherosclerosis
• Tunica layers elastic arteries adventitia white fibrous connective
• Contraction arterial smooth muscles control nervous endocrine systems
• Capillaries 1)how diameter varied 2)regulation blood flow nervous
• Method material exchange capillaires active transport diffusion capillary
• Veins valves types semilunar contain
• Veins speed blood aorta capillaries 400mms-¹ 500mms-¹ 1mm
• Heart congestive failure hypertension blood retained lungs
• Leading death western civilization thromboembolism
• Blood thrombosis thrombus formation irritation infection vessel lining
• Heart attack aka consequence myocardial infarction blockage blood
• Stroke aka cerebral infarction is
• Scientific term bleeding haemorrhage for
• Lymph vein largest vessel present body drain thoracic
• Lymph factors maintain flow skeletal muscle activity movement
• Lymph nodes locations masses connective tissue lymphocytes present
• Present lymphoid masses examples location function spleen adenoids
• Amount lymph present body litres
• Fatty meal conc fat globules aka lymph chylomicrons
• Organ filters blood spleen exposing macrophages lymphocytes destroy
• Extreme lymph nodes painfully swollen mumps due accumulation
• T b lymphocytes organs linked thymus gland makes
• Structure antibody draw label of
• B lymphocytes immune response cells clone antibodies aka
• Cases passive immunity combat active infections tetanus infectious
• Aids virus retrovirus is a
• Tumour rna viruses production animal species cats rodents
• Rna tumour viruses aka shape size envelope specificity
• Injected patient passive immunity antiserum antivenom serum antibodies
• Chromosomes frog no of in
• Myelogenous defective wbcs blood bone leucaemia complication cure
• Cure thalassaemia aka cooley's anaemia genetically transmitted abnormality
• Oedema intracellular i osmosis cells extracellular ii extra
• Events g2 phase energy storage synthesis proteins rna
• Main duct male reproductive system vas deferens
• Initial cell spermatogenesis spermatogonium for
• Production sperms spermatogenesis q times spermatocyte divide
• Egg production female oogenesis in
• Coverings secondary oocyte innermost zona pellucida corona radiata
• Region female body fertilization occur give names proximal
• Cells male secrete reproductive system functions germinal epithelium
• Glands present male reproductive system seminal vesicle prostate
• Female reproductive cycle mammals oestrous →estrogen partly prepares
• Long menstrual bleeding females days
• End menstrual cycle female's life called menopause
• Factors effect menstrual cycle duration age malnourishment emotional
• Follicle undergoes follicular atresia all
• Polar bodies produced oogenesis how
• Genes change positions called explanation jumping hopping loci
• X plant flower dominant recessive traits pea colour
• Height pea plants feet recessive trait inches
• Mendel performed experiments long years
• Ways gene interest isolate chromosome restriction endonuclease synthesize
• Restriction enzyme isolated hamilton o smith
• Restriction enzymes total commonly no
• Nucleotides restriction enzymes cut chromosome site called palindromic
• Restriction enzyme ecor1 cuts c-ttaa^-g
• Plasmids discovered functions studying sexual reproduction intestinal bacterium
• Resistance tetracycline examples plasmids psc pbr ampicillin
• Dna recombinant aka chimaeric is
• Platelets aka thrombocytes are
• Examples vectors recombinant dna technology plasmids lambda phages
• Salt make bacterial cells plasmids calcium chloride cacl²
• Pcr developed kary b mullis
• Pcr machine aka thermocycler is
• Enzyme pcr source taq polymerase thermus aquaticus bacterium
• Minutes pcr steps heat denature cool add primers
• Years oldest dna analysed mummified brain million plant
• Dna sequencing/analysis identify parents criminals diagnose viral infections
• Dna fingerprinting procedure produce rflps restriction fragment length
• Model plant arabidopsis name of
• Organisms genomes sequenced chloroplasts mitochondria bacteria yeasts nematode
• Method dna gene sequencing sanger-coulson dideoxy ribonucleoside triphosphates
• Biotechnology products obtained bacteria insulin growth hormone tissue
• Large bioreactors vats transgenic bacteria produced amount
• Sweetner produced transgenic bacteria aka type biomolecule raw
• Transgenic bacteria improved bioleaching capabilities extract gold copper
• Plant strains engineered produce insect/pest toxins cotton potato
• Plant strains made resistance herbicides soybeans corn cotton
• Biodegradable plastic source cellular component polyhydroxy butyrate cell
• Human products obtained seeds transgenic plants hormones clotting
• Green revolution occur 1960s special high-yield hybrid plants
• Drug obtained genetically engineered goats function antithrombin iii
• Biotechnology product obtained mice urine human growth hormone
• Plant cells removed walls called protoplasts
• Foreign ways produce transgenic plants introduce genes immature
• Ways produce transgenic animals micro inject foreign genes
• Hormone animals make larger transgenic bovine growth fishes
• Cells nuclei cloning mice cumulus 2n cling egg
• Enlist diseases gene therapy 1)scids severe combined immunodeficiency
• Liver familial hypercholesterolemia symptoms treatment cells lack receptor
• Enzyme cells scids symptoms treatment severe combined immunodeficiency
• Gene due cystic fibrosis symptoms treatment success codes
• Cancer make cells chemotherapy gene therapy vulnerable bone
• Gene balloon therapy coronary artery angioplasty procedure solution
• Suggestion curing parkinson's disease dopamine-producing cells grafted directly
• Suggestions curing hemophilia patients regular doses cells genes
• Human genome size organisms times larger
• Base pairs human genome billion
• Chromosomes potato no of in
• Darwin's contemporary theory work journal alfred wallace east
• Main points darwin's theort descent modification natural selection
• Main animal observed darwin types finches
• Respiratory protein found aerobic organisms cytochrome c
• Population neo-darwinism aka fields involved modern synthesis comprehensive
• Fossils found materials rock tissues animal replaced sand
• Examples vestigial organs pelvic leg bones whales snakes
• Tubes ear connect throat called developed embryonic structure
• Factors affecting gene frequency mutation migration genetic drift
• Uric acid structure occurence and
• Types nitrogenous wastes amino acids ammonia urea uric
• Urea ornithine cycle +nh³ +co² citrulline argininosuccinate arginine
• Blood kidneys receive heart beat pumped
• Cortex medulla types nephrons cortical arranged juxtamedullary border
• Structure adenine of
• Structure guanine of
• Structure cytosine of
• Structure thymine uracil of and
• Amount glomerular filtrate reabsorbed what
• Capillaries renal tubules peritubular vasa recta
• Active hormones involved selective reabsorption nephron released function
• Warm cold blooded animals classification homeotherms birds mammals
• Body heat produce fish modern classification animals wrt
• Hormones triggers heat production non-shivering thermogenesis thyroid thyroxin
• Organ specialized thermoregulation mammals skin
• Range body temperature mammals 36.1°c 37.8°c
• Temp layer strategies thermoregulation marine mammals whales seals
• Strategy heat loss terrestrial mammals sweat panting evaporation
• Chemicals increase body temperature fever pyrogens
• Fever aka pyrexia is
• Μm diameter myofibrils muscle cells myocytes
• Light dark bands sarcomere called properties wrt visible
• Parts sarcomere give etymology central bright region mid-line
• Nm thickness actin myosin filaments
• Structure thin filament sarcomere of
• Huxley sliding filament model proposed h a.f colleagues
• Molecule energy muscles atp creatine phosphate
• Lactic acid cleared muscles rest broken aerobically energy
• Nuclei type muscle cardiac smooth skeletal
• Striped muscle striations cardiac irregular smooth unstriated skeletal
• Connective tissues surround muscles epimysium perimysium endomysium sarcolemma
• Muscle fibres innervated single neuron collectively called motor
• T-tubules location number cell collectively called form terminal
• Receptors pain cold times abundant relative abundance types
• Receptors vibrations present detect general pacinian corpuscles limbs
• Receptors corpuscles touch present end skin meissner's papillae
• Pain receptors aka nociceptors are
• Cells nervous system present called abundance functions neuroglia
• Components present axoplasm mitochondria rough er microtubules neurofibrils
• Structures present cell body neuron nissel's granules groups
• Long axons grow mm metre
• Neuron's cell body aka functions soma main nutritional
• Branch sensory neuron names lengths cell body located
• K+ ions resting membrane potential factors establishment mv
• Na gates open active membrane potential time duration
• Speed average max nerve impulse transmission 100ms-¹ 120ms-¹
• Give examples neurotransmitters site function acetylcholine pns dopamine
• Synaptic steps transmission nerve impulse arrives knob vesicles
• Pituitary gland aka weight hypophysis cerebri grams
• Disease adh symptom diabetes insipidus lack secretion dilute
• Blood pressure adh secretion decrease volume osmotic external
• Insufficient secretion insulin disease symptoms diabetes mellitus high
• Trophic hormone secretion pancreatic insulin glucagon pituitary somatotrophin
• Source commercial production gibberellins fungal cultures
• Gibberellins substitute light promote flowering plants red long
• Grapes commercial applications gibberellins brewing industry parthenocarpy produce
• Β-cells abnormality tumour production islets langerhans formed excessive
• Term mendel genes describe elementens particulate hereditary factors
• Test cross dominant recessive genotype individual homozygous heterozygous
• Total dihybrid cross results genotypes phenotypes phenotypic ratio
• Scientists rediscovered mendel's work carl correns hugo de
• Traits mendel's pea plant present chromosomes
• Society mendel presented work scientific field brunn natural
• Incomplete dominance discovered o'clock flower carl correns
• Discovered mn blood group system symbol gene landsteiner
• Gene alleles source extra genetic mutations
• Chromosome gene abo blood group system present number
• Single gene affects traits phenomenon called pleiotropy
• Scientist studied genetics wheat grain colour nilsson ehle
• Total genetics wheat grain colour gametes punnette square
• Echinoderm skeleton substances nitrogen calcium
• Red wheat grain colour phenotypes ratios white light
• Genes control human skin colour
• Examples linked genes humans x-chromosome colour blindness haemophilia
• Tracheophytes aka anthophytes are
• Blood depression effects oedema lack nutrients o² disturbs
• Recombinant frequency aka calculated cross backcrossing dihybrid heterozygote
• Provide raw material evolution variations
• Haemophilia factor x-linked types age occurence clotting chromosome
• Rickets x-linked dominant disease hypophosphatemic vitamin d resistant
• Cells light present retina functions cone colours bright
• Opsin present x proteins retina colour identification chromosome
• Blindness types dichromacy protanopia red deuteranopia green tritanopia
• Weakness types colour red protanomalous green deuteranomalous
• X-linked recessive trait testicular feminization androgen insensitivity syndrome
• Gene triggers maleness humans sry y chromosome 6th
• Test disease conducted restriction endonucleases huntington
• Advantages plant made antibodies inexpensive contaminated pathogens infect
• Advancement plans biotechnology plants increase protein starch production
• Bacteria produce transgenic frost-plus living plants changed frost-minus
• Oldest fossils organism prokaryotes the
• Phase menstruation duration proliferative secretory
• Day ovulation generally occurs menstrual cycle 14th
• Arteriosclerosis degenerative change due age thickening middle layer
• Group side present type chlorophyll chl-a methyl ch³
• Enzyme missing scids patients adenosine deaminase
• Amino acid free naming dipeptides nh² group suffix
• Type cofactor haem prosthetic group
• Type cofactors attached dehydrogenases coenzymes
• Enzyme ionization effect ph activity slight change amino
• Examples inhibitors cyanides antibiotics antimetabolites
• Typical magnification powers ocular lens 5x 10x
• Composition secondary cell wall cellulose hemicellulose inorganic salts
• Ions k+ pumped opening stomata modern concept stimuli
• Abundance top biomolecule oxygen carbon hydrogen nitrogen calcium
• Age dna bacterial mammalian cells bacteria mammals
• Age rna bacterial mammalian cells bacteria mammals
• General formula monosaccharides ch²o)n of
• Herbivores digest cellulose microorganisms bacteria yeasts protozoa gut
• Strange type lipids sphingolipids that
• N-bases phospholipids structure common choline serine ethanolamine ch²-ch²-n⁺(ch³)³
• Amino acids general number proteins
• Involved tertiary hydrophilic bonding structure proteins h-bonding ionic
• Bonding involved quaternary proteins hydrophobic interactions h-bonding ionic
• Discovered ratio bases present dna erwin chargaff
• Distance bw consecutive base pairs dna 0.34nm
• Change acid n-side sickle cell anaemia dna amino
• Opposite feedback inhibition precursor initiation
• Site parts active binding catalytic
• Face golgi complex forming cis outer convex input
• Enzymes lysosomes hydrolytic acid phophatases
• Diseases lysosomal storage substances commonly accumulated glycogen glycolipids
• Glycogen lysosomal storage disease wrong accumulated glycogenosis type
• Enzymes peroxisomes type examples oxidative peroxidase catalase glycolic
• Substances stored vacuoles water reserves imp organic compounds
• Mitochondria vesicles rods filaments appear
• Atp form adp oxidized/reduced oxidized reduced +pi energy
• Thylakoid side membrane photolysis water occur lumen
• Side thylakoid membrane nadph atp produced stroma
• Positions electron carriers photosynthesis relative thylakoid membrane photosystems
• Structure responsible pumping protons thylakoid membrane plastoquinone cytochrome
• Direction f1 particles facing mitochondria chloroplasts shape matrix
• Pyruvic acid krebs matrix site glycolysis oxidation cycle
• Nadh² molecules produced aerobic respiration total
• Discovered nucleus robert brown who
• Centromere centrosome place attachment spindle fibres chromosome pair
• Chains bacterial cell wall made composition peptidoglycan murein
• Cyanobacteria aka blue green algae
• Million species plants animals how
• Plants taxon division synonymous phylum
• Basis kingdom system modified difference names robert whittaker
• Prokaryotes mitochondria derived purple bacteria
• Bacteriophages viruses discovered contributions twort concluded lytic effect
• Vaccination perfomed duration rest period process named edward
• Rabies caused bite animals dogs cats foxes bats
• Shapes viruses helical rod-shaped icosahedral/polyhedral cubic spherical
• Hiv vaccine trials start early south africa
• Colours absorbed chlorophylls green yellow
• Total types chlorophyll eukaryotes chl-a,b,c,d prokaryotes bacteriochlorophylls
• Effect magnesium deficiency plants yellowing leaves
• Structure haem group porphyrin ring made smaller pyrrole
• Forms chlorophyll types differing slightly red absorption peaks
• Alcoholic fermentation
• Phase glycolysis preparatory oxidative payoff
• Glycolysis oxidative phosphorylation g³p sequence events oxidized produce
• Glycolysis hydration dehydration step 2-pg pep
• Struture present plants n-fixing bacteria root nodules legumes
• Layers porifera pinacoderm outermost mesenchyme choanoderm flagellated cells
• Sexual orientation molluscs hermaphrodite helix separate unio
• Examples flatworms mode life planaria dugesia free living
• Parasitic marine annelids stylaria hirudo leech nereis
• Sexual orientation annelids hermaphrodite hirudo earthworm separate nereis
• Phyla develop trochophore larvae annelids molluscs
• Digestive system echinoderms complete axial coiled anus absent
• Forms respiration arthropods aquatic gills terrestrial book lungs
• Structures invloved respiration echinoderms dermal branches tube feet
• Transport system arthropods dorsal contractile heart blood sinuses
• Excretory system molluscs tissue present number drains metanephridia
• Nervous system arthropods components brain ventral double nerve
• Nervous system molluscs paired cerebral pleural visceral pedal
• Molluscs foods mussels clams oysters
• Annelids food edible fish polychaetes
• Organs locomotion annelids chitinous chaetae/setae parapodia body wall
• Arthropods food crayfish losbsters prawns
• Animals act intermediate hosts human parasites give crustaceans
• Percent animal species invertebrates what
• Give colonial cnidarians obelia an
• Long meter microscopic size variation sponges cnidarians nematodes
• Units colonies cnidaria called types functions zooids polyps/hydroids
• Pinworm infection location symptoms enterobius vermicularis parasite caecum
• Animal injurious gardens cultivation scientific slug limax
• Marine mussel scientific mytillus name
• Animal button industry shell freshwater mussel anodonta
• Shipworm toredo
• Shellac produced wax secreted iac insects
• Echinoderms aka spiny skinned animals
• Skeleton echinoderms endoskeleton calcium rich plates bearing spines
• Urchin sea shapes echinoderms flattened cake globular elongated
• Importance echinoderms poisonous food fertilizer scavengers clean seawater
• Mammalian reptilian characteristics monotremes aka prototheria mammary glands
• Hair modified eutheria scales pangolin spikes porcupine
• Australia distribution marsupials monotremes america
• Arch direction aorta birds mammals left
• Voice box birds location syrinx bw trachea bronchi
• Structure crushing food birds gizzard
• Heart reptiles incompletely chambered atria partly divided ventricle
• Digits pentactyl limbs amphibians reptiles aves fewer toes
• Amphibians limbs caecilians without
• Cells pigmentation amphibians chromatophore pigment
• Mud puppy aka category necturus amphibia
• Stage respiratory system amphibians larval gills adult lungs
• Circulatory system amphibians chambered heart atria ventricle sinus
• Category chimaeras belong cartilaginous fishes chondrichthyes gnathostoma vertebrata
• Cranial nerves osteichthyes no of
• Gills covered operculum bony fishes osteichthyes
• Period lobe-finned fishes coelacanth latimeria devonian
• Examples cartilaginous fishes dogfish shark squalus acanthias eagle
• Examples bony fishes labeo rohita sea horse
• Mouth teeth agnathas myxini rows eversible biting 2)cephalospidomorphi
• Fins bony cartilaginous difference bw osteichthyes chondrichthyes caudal
• Siphon part urochordates aka projections bodies tunicates incurrent
• Called urochordates uro tail larva mid-dorsal supporting rod
• Examples urochordates ascidia halosymthia of
• Body 2nd subphylum acraniata presence notochord peculiarity cephalochordata
• Duct present urochordates hypophyseal in
• Porifera descendants choanoflagellates are the
• Examples agnatha petromyzon marinus sea lamprey myxine glutinosa
• Animal protists categories sarcodina zooflagellates/mustigofora ciliates/suctoria/ciliophora sporozoa/apicomplexans
• Phaeophyta aka brown algae are
• Protists part building coral reefs red algae caco³
• Organisms contractile vacuoles freshwater protozoans pp excess water
• Flexible covering ciliates called peculiar feature group pellicle
• Pigments present algae chl e carotenoids phycoerythrin phycobilin
• Dinoflagellate ceratium example of
• Special starch producing storing structure euglenophyta chlorophyta pyrenoid
• Long phaeophyta grow forms called structural components metres
• Give examples algae euglena ceratium pinnularia laminaria macrocystis
• Algae flagella euglenophyta pyrrophyta volvox chlamydomonas
• Fungi-like protists size/hyphae examples +categories myxomycota 30cm diameter
• Examples minerals present shell marine sarcodines foraminifera caco³
• Centrioles present organisms animals protozoans fungi-like protists lower
• Ph tolerance fungi wide of
• Fungi store carbohydrates glycogen as
• Large species fungi toadstool a
• Fungi modified hyphae saprotrophic anchoring parasitic absorption hyphal
• Types parasitic fungi obligate rust mildews facultative
• Lichens association bw fungi ascomycetes basidiomycetes photosynthetic cyanobacteria
• Predatory fungi examples pleurotus ostreatus nematodes wood athrobotrys
• Ringworm microsporium audouni cause
• Athlete's foot tinea pedis cause
• Symptoms ergotism purple ergot rye nervous spasms convulsions
• Material inhibit fungal growth source griseofulvin penicillium nigricans
• Substance prevent transplant rejection source cyclosporins tolypocadium inflatum
• Antibiotic obtained fungus penicillium chrysogenum
• Plant infections caused ascomycotes apple scab dutch elm
• Diseases caused basidiomycotes rust smuts cereal crops corn
• Types edible mushrooms how many
• Fungi resemble mushrooms truffles edible fruiting bodies type
• Fungi haves genetic research yeast saccharomyces cerevisiae pink
• Form types mycorrhizae endo penetrate outer cells plant
• Sea lily group organisms echinoderms
• Study bones cartilage called osteology
• Bone part spongy yellow red epiphysis terminal broad
• Bone cells secrete calcium types osteogenic stem osteocytes
• Covering cartilage composition dense layer collagen fibres called
• Cartilage types locations hyaline end long bones nose
• Connective tissue covering bones periosteum
• Composition cartilage chondrocytes lacunae collagen elastic fibres
• Bones human skeleton no of
• Minerals bone calcium phosphates carbonates
• Facial bones paired lacrimal nasal inferior concha maxilla
• Bones skull paired parietal temporal unpaired frontal occipital
• Location hyoid bones base skull tongue articulate head
• Cervical vertebrae no of 7
• Bones vertebral column atlas axis
• Vertebrae fused pelvic sacrum coccyx
• True ribs false floating how
• Pelvic girdle bone components joint coxa ilium ischium
• Shoulder bone collar scapula clavicle
• Humerus fits part shoulder glenoid cavity
• Ulna radius relative length bones forearm longer thicker
• Upper row carpals articulates form wrist joint radius
• Symphysis types cartilaginous joints examples synchondrosis pubic intervertebral
• Study joints called arthrology of
• Fibrous joints hyaline cartilage synovial types compositions examples
• Joint type present bw ribs sternum cartilaginous costal
• Structure intervertebral disc annulus fibrosus strong outer covering
• Sciatica symptoms tumour slipped disc pressure fracture pelvic
• Vertebral spondylosis condition fusion immobility joint column chronic
• Disorder types arthritis osteoarthritis progressive disease articular cartilages
• Types fractures simple compound skin penetrated wound formed
• Bone callus due clot formed osteoblasts occurs rupture
• Cavity pelvic girdle acetabulum of
• Strange structure formed healing bone fracture spongy trabeculae
• Ligaments dislocation joints effect solution trauma diseases rheumatoid
• Sprains common sites treatment ankle wrist knee rested
• Aid bone fracture/dislocation joint immobilize apply ice provide
• Study muscles called myology of
• Muscle covering bundle fascicle fibres epimysium perimysium endomysium
• Length muscle fibres 1mm 40mm
• Parts troponin tni attached actin tnt tnc
• Covers binding site actin resting phase tropomyosin
• Muscles contractile intermediate filaments smooth
• Origin insertion quadriceps femoris ilium femur tibia
• Cramp low blood sugar electrolyte depletion dehydration irritability
• Tetany complications low blood calcium levels due lack
• Bone spongy formed phase fracture repair hard/bony callus
• Marine invertebrates enlist osmoconformers freshwater vertebrates myxine elasmobranches
• Enlist osoregulators freshwater animals marine vertebrates
• High osmotic conc marine habitat maintained organic substances
• Bony fishes aka teleosts are
• Special adaptation freshwater osmoregulators ionocytes cells amphibian skin
• Ions methods elimination salts marine osmoregulators kidneys remove
• Fins agnatha groups caudal extends anteriorly cephalospidomorphi median
• Anhydrobiosis tolerance high degree dehydration desert animals special
• Desert animals water cellular respiration food eat kangaroo
• Adaptations prevent water loss terrestrial animals invertebrates chitinous
• Harmful effects ammonia highly soluble raises ph interferes
• Location kidneys wrt vertebrae t12 l3 12th thoracic
• Length ureters cm of 25
• Study structure function diseases kidney called nephrology
• Study diseases urinary tract called urology
• Covering kidney called fibrous capsule
• Entire cavity kidney called renal sinus
• Renal tips pyramids called open papillae minor calyces
• Kidney produced blood supply renal enters interlobar entering
• Efferent comparison diameters afferent arterioles half
• Ph urine of 4.8 to
• Tubular secretion secreted purpose location maintain ph urine
• Bacteria simple utis e coli proteus vugaris klebsiella
• Positive gonorrhoea/urethritis gram negative neisseria gonorrhoeae
• Syphilis treponema palladium spirochaete cause
• Times utis common females males
• Males females inches length urethra
• Infection kidney called pyelonephritis of
• Condition kidney stones called nephrolithiasis
• Infection bladder called cystitis of
• Types kidney stones frequency calcium oxalate uric acid
• Stone methods kidney treatment eswl lithotripter generate shockwaves
• Nephritis pyelonephritis inflammation glomerulus infection kidney
• Chronic renal failure high blood pressure diabetes mellitus
• Acute renal failure bleeding due trauma vomiting diarrhoea
• Fluid direction blood flow enters leaves hemodialysis dialysate
• Catheters inserted body peritoneal dialysis haemodialysis entrance entry
• Matching donor kidneys selected basis human leucocytes antigen
• Infection give yeast humans candidiasis candidia albicans mouth
• Kidney transplant attached artery lower abdomen bladder femoral
• Rejection problems kidney transplant solution long careful toxic
• Hormone discovered baylis starling secretin
• Examples hormones proteinous peptide proteins insulin glucagon sth
• Chemical nature adrenaline catecholamine of
• Ductless glands human body no
• Give messenger camp an example
• Amino acids encoded codons leucine serine arginine
• Hormones bind receptor cell mode action protein messenger
• Hormones anterior pituitary secrete how
• Cretinism symptoms congenital undersecretion thyroxin t4 mental retardation
• Myxedema symptoms full-blown hypothyroidism undersecretion t4 lack iodine
• Rate graves disease symptoms oversecretion t3 t4 weight
• Addison's disease undersecretion cortical hormones symptoms general metabolic
• Cushing's disease oversecretion cortical hormones effects excess protein
• Phenylalanine converted enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase
• Phenylketonuria symptoms mental retardation delayed social skills small-sized
• Hormone somatotrophin secretion controlled growth releasing factor ghrf
• Increases growth hormone aka effects body somatotrophin uptake
• Grow acromegaly effects bones longer thickness enlarged hands
• Secretion acth secreted influence corticotrophin releasing factor crf
• Secretion msh median lobe pituitary hormone produced control
• Location thyroid gland lobes side trachea larynx
• Parathyroid glands location posterior side thyroid
• Iodothyronine hormones thyroid gland tri t3 tetra t4
• T4 t3 times conc potency duration thyroid hormones
• Increase development functions t3 t4 basal metabolic rate
• Classic symptom hyperthyroidism exophthalmia the
• Muscle secretion insulin hypoglycemia upsets nerve functioning cramps
• Effect low high blood calcium levels muscles nerves
• High glucose urine called glycosuria
• Inhibitory factors control secretion glucagon blood glucose conc
• Cells insulin uptake glucose body esp skeletal muscle
• Factors controlling release adrenaline sympathetic nervous system
• Act blood functions adrenaline noradrenaline hormones lly potent
• Composition saliva water mucin proteoglycan salts cl⁻ lysozyme
• Hormones adrenal cortex glucocorticoid cortisone cortisol mineralocorticoid aldosterone
• Oversecretion estrogen effect fibroids benign tumours uterus polycystic
• Stages development human embryo zygote blastomere identical cells
• Embryonic layers ectoderm endoderm part separates cavities epiblast
• Composition animal egg yolk phospholipids proteins fats
• Fishes types cleavage holoblastic bony amphibians evenly distributed
• Bird eggs cleavage occurs blastodisc small disc cytoplasm
• Gastrulation begin 15th day fertilization
• Slit formed gastrulation called primitive streak
• Neurulation begin 1st month development
• Neural tube formation complete 22nd day fertilization
• Brain end month development 1st vesicles fore mid
• Motor sensory nerves origin brain spinal cord neural
• Structures formed 4th germ layer neural crest cells
• Hans experiment spemann's salamander major works discovering control
• Conclusions delayed nucleation experiment roux weismann hypothesis wrong
• Factors differentiation cells inductive interactions cytoplasmic segregation morphogenetic
• Induction blastopore experiment studying embryonic result naming area
• Study aging called gerontology of
• Duration infancy month neonatal years child
• Times human cells divide x number body
• Risk factors osteoporosis cigarette alcohol low calcium intake
• Skin relation melanin aging older people fewer melanocytes
• Factors contribute secondary aging diseases disuse lack exercise
• Study abnormal body development teratology
• Matter csf present bw layers meninges arachnoid pia
• Location brain ventricles of the
• Cerebral hemispheres connected band axons corpus callosum
• Ridges cerebral cortex forms called separated shallow deep
• Spinal cord ends vertebrae lumbar l1 l2
• Divisions cerebrum lobes functional areas sub-areas
• Components 3rd portion forebrain locations/shapes limbic system hypothalamus
• Location functions medulla oblongata pons spinal cord controls
• Bw pons location function medulla midbrain acts bridge
• Commissure wings butterfly connected dorsal grey ventral white
• Cerebral matter regions cerebrum cortex grey medulla white
• Number spinal nerves human pairs
• Cranial nerves pairs no of
• Somatic nervous system connects cns skin skeletal muscles
• Nerves included parasympathetic nervous system cranial vagus sacral
• Sympathetic nerves spinal composition nervous system cranial t1
• Olfactory present composition organ receptor neurons surrounded ciliated
• Taste receptors group modified epithelial cells pores hair
• Connective tissue cells touch receptors names location type
• Pain receptors location structure stimuli epidermis naked dendrites
• Endings nerve heat detection called ruffini
• Cold receptors called krause end bulbs
• Pigments cyanobacteria chlorophyll phycobilins majority blue phycocyanin
• Proportion cyanobacteria fix nitrogen heterocysts thick walled anucleate
• Filamentous form cyanobacteria trichome linear row inside mucilaginous
• Examples cyanobacteria fix nitrogen anabaena nostoc
• Largest bacteria location size epulopiscium fishelsoni gut brown
• Parasite smallest bacteria names shape size phytoplasma plant
• E coli shape size rod-shaped bacillus 7um long
• Shape shifter bacteria called give pleomorphic h pylori
• Types speherical bacterial shapes cocci diplococci streptococci tetrad
• Treponema palladium shape spirochete
• Outer covering bacteria called types composition glycocalyx slime
• Functions bacterial outer covering protection phagocytosis present form
• Functions pilus present transfer genes conjugation resist attack
• Outer membrane present characteristics gram negative bacteria extra
• Acid characteristics gram positive bacteria teichoic lipoteichoic protrude
• Gram permeable resistant comparison bacterial cell wall types
• Neisseria meningitidis shape coccus
• Pseudomonas shape bacillus
• Special infoldings bacterial membrane called mesosomes
• Bacteria store food form glycogen fats proteins
• Electron microscope nucleoid appears lighter/darker cytoplasm lighter
• Cell pili aka composition visible occurence fimbriae tubular
• Size bacterial flagellum 20μm long 20nm thick
• Cell membrane hollow parts bacterial flagellum explain basal
• Protein present bacterial flagella type globular fibrous flagellin
• Form actinomycetes gram positive/negative method growth endospores/exospore/cyst positive
• Cell bacterial cyst formation procedure resistance capabilities azotobacter
• Type spore/cyst complex resistant long survive endospores thousands
• Flagella present sides bacteria amphitrichous
• Tuft flagella present side bacteria lophotrichous
• Flagella present randomly sides bacteria peritrichous
• Spirochaetal movement present structure location motions spirochaetes gram
• Gliding motility shown examples method movement cyanobacteria myxobacteria
• Flagellar movement shown bacteria rods spirilli ¹pseudomonas salmonella
• Examples saprotrophic bacteria pseudomonas azotobacter aerobic
• Bacteria examples chemoautotrophic sulphur nitrifying
• Bacteria sulphur examples photosynthetic green purple green/purple non-sulphur
• Co² h²s energy 2s chemoautotrophic bacteria requirements mechanism
• Oxidized photosynthetic bacteria requirements byproducts co² h²s sunlight
• Phase bacteria growth lag cells divide high metabolism
• Organisms show budding yeast bacteria porifera cnidarians
• Average generation time bacterial cells grow reproduce minutes
• Fake sexual reproduction called parasexuality genetic recombination
• Bacteria types sexual reproduction explain conjugation sex pilus/conjugating
• Outermost layer stomach serosa vertical peritoneum
• Increases humus benefits soil partially decaying organic matter
• Nitrifying bacteria function examples convert ammonia nitrates nitrosomonas
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria function examples convert gas nitrates
• Denitrifying bacteria function examples convert nitrates back atmospheric
• Meant bioremediation removal degradation environmental pollutants living organisms
• Thiobacillus ferrooxidans enlist bacteria mining metals produced thiooxidans
• Biodegradable plastics made bacteria poly-b-hydroxybutyrate poly-b-hydroxyvalerate
• Causative agent cholera vibrio cholerae
• Causative agent typhoid salmonella typhi
• Vitamin produced intestinal bacteria k types b including
• Person antiseptic joseph lister the
• Living surfaces chemical methods control bacteria antiseptics disinfectants
• Motion type exhibited cyanobacteria gliding
• Electromagnetic radiations wavelength killing microbes nm
• Rays generally sterilisation gamma which
• Heat sensitive compounds sterilised membrane filters antibiotics seras
• Pasteurization effective methods kills nonspore-forming bacteria options milk
• Recommended temperatures refrigerator freezer 10-15°c days 10°c 18°c
• Chemical preserving food potassium metabisulphite
• Size bacterium spirochaeta plicatilis 250um long 0.75um thick
• Method sterilisation microbiological labs high temperature
• Discovery dna famous experiments bacteria model organisms hereditary
• Give examples types bacteria basis respiration aerobic pseudomonas
• Living cyanobacteria mode free epiphytic symbiotic unicellular colonial/filamentous
• Cyanobacteria gram positive/negative cyclic/non-cyclic phosphorylation negative non-cyclic ps
• Pairs salivary glands parotid submandibular sublingual
• Total length gi tract 9m
• Tunics gi tract mucosa food submucosa muscularis serosa
• Types teeth shapes incisors chisel-shaped biting canine cone-shaped
• Colon part called sigmoid last
• Carbohydrates digested oral cavity what
• Triggers swallowing reflex pressure food pharynx
• Wave sequence events peristalsis relaxation infront contraction
• Stimulus peristalsis expansion tubular walls
• Length osesophagus 25cm of
• Muscular layers muscle correct order longitudinal outermost circular
• Cells mucous secrete produce types present stomach surface
• Region parietal cells present stomach pyloric
• Intrinsic factor composition secreted function glycoprotein parietal cells
• Gastric juice produced daily litres
• Release gastrin smell taste thoughts food activate part
• Waves chyme stomach mixing churning action formation peristaltic
• Small intestine held mesentery double layered fold peritoneum
• Length small intestine 6m of
• Length thickness duodenum 25cm long 5cm thick
• Length ileum 3.5m of
• Size villi 1.5mm of 0.5
• Villi made cells simple columnar epithelium
• Largest part gi tract small intestine
• Major site nutrient absorption small intestine duodenum jejunum
• Junction intestine bw small large structures ileocecal aka
• Cells components pancreatic juice duct water bicarbonate acinar
• Ph pancreas of 8
• Activated trypsin activation pancreatic proteolytic enzymes trypsinogen intestinal
• Secretion intestinal glands enterokinase aminopeptidase dipeptidase sucrase maltase
• Dipeptidase erepsin example of a
• Absorption carbohydrates mechanism active transport facilitated diffusion hepatic
• Structures absorption fats small intestine composition micelles droplets
• Fats small mechanism absorption intestine micelle contact epithelial
• Enzymes bound microvilli peptidases which
• Acids enter cells amino absorption proteins small intestine
• Length colon 1.8m of 1.5
• Length caecum inferiorly 6cm of
• Length vermiform appendix 9cm of
• Length anal canal 2-3cm of
• Substance large intestine secrete bicarbonates
• Triggers defecation reflex distention wall rectum peristaltic waves
• Anal sphincter voluntary control internal/external external
• Lobes liver major minor 2
• Length vagina cm of 8
• Sphincter opening duodenum secretions liver pancreas major duodenal
• Ducts hepatic common liver left +cystic bile
• Sodium examples bile salts glycocholate taurocholate
• Hormones release exocrine secretions liver duodenum stimulus effect
• Materials stored liver copper iron fats glycogen vitamins
• Deamination amino acids produces products pyruvic ammonia
• Size gallbladder 8cm long 4cm wide
• Vitamin synthesized liver produced carotene
• Liver produces protein albumin amino acids
• Liver location gallbladder relative inferior surface
• Body divisions pancreas head curve duodenum tail upto
• Enterokinase secreted intestinal glands is
• Affect duodenal hormone pancreas secretin stimulates duct cells
• Study disease aetiology of causes
• Ulcers h pylori gastric duodenal
• Cimetidine drug reduces hcl production
• Bacteria food poisoning salmonella clostridium campylobacter
• Loperamide antidiarrheal agent
• Hormonal obesity disorder thyroid pituitary adrenal glands
• Neurotic disorder related eating bulimia nervosa
• Long recovery anorexia years how
• Nervosa patient fed intravenously anorexia
• Nervosa stay hospital strict supervision bulimia
• Pore size porcelain filter micron
• Enzyme present hepatitis b virus reverse transcriptase
• Genome plant viruses rna of
• Viral plant diseases how many
• Virus warts papovirus which causes
• Picornavirus disease polio hepatitis causes
• Enveloped influenza virus category genome orthomyxovirus ssrna template
• Genome bacteriophages strands ssdna of
• Steps viral infection process adsorption penetration genome injection
• Rate viral replication cell minutes phage particles produced
• Digestive enzyme present viruses lysozyme
• Lytic cycle events infection disintegration host dna +modification
• Lysogeny meaning integration phage dna bacterial chromosome prophage
• Termination lysogenic state called factors induction desiccation uv
• Scientist major work prions viruses stanley prusiner
• Diseases fatal neurodegenerative transmitted particle kuru humans mad
• Particle resistant uv heat viruses prions
• Plant diseases generally caused particle affected species viroids
• Composition viroids short highly complementary circular single strand
• Viroids replication rna polymerase ii catalyzes rolling circle
• Symptoms hepatitis fever jaundice vomiting nausea anorexia dark
• Treatment hepatitis c combination alpha interferon ribavirin
• Give names hav hbv hcv picornavirus hepadnavirus flavivirus
• Hepatitis b aka infectious serum
• Blood transmission type hepatitis e oral-faecal route b
• Vaccines hepatitis viruses inactivated alive virus b biotechnology
• Required glycoproteins spikes present hiv functions outer gp120
• Enzymes present hiv reverse transcriptase integrase protease
• Genes hiv functions total code structural proteins
• Hiv transmitted breastfeeding can be
• Treatment aids called anti-retroviral therapy art combination medicines
• Symptoms aids swollen lymph nodes diarrhoea asymptomatic carrier
• Peculiarities hiv structure protein shell beneath envelope made
• Virus flu influenza occurs epidemic form
• Virus common cold adenovirus which
• Enveloped immunity measles virus genome small large body
• Common childhood disease adult population equally susceptible measles
• Site replication polio virus oropharynx intestinal tract motor
• Polio virus type enterovirus/picornavirus
• Lobules present testis no of
• Seminiferous tubules lobule testes of
• Tubular network inside testicles sperms undergo maturation rete
• Tubes sperms transported testicle epididymis efferent ductules
• Duct male enters prostate gland ejaculatory formed fusion
• Sperm duct aka vas deferens
• Location prostate gland encircles urethra bladder
• Location bulbourethral glands junction ejaculatory duct urethra
• Hormone secreted control spermatogenesis normal rate inhibin sertoli
• Fsh male reproductive system function acts stimulates spermatogenesis
• Shape sertoli cells elongated of
• Hormone growth development germinal epithelium male reproductive system
• Size ovaries 5cm long 3cm wide
• Length oviducts cm long of
• Upper wall uterus called fundus
• Layers uterus perimetrium myometrium endometrium
• Urethra vagina position relative embedded anterior wall

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