MCAT Biology to come (Jojo)

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• Dynein brings vesicles negative end microtubule
• Rna negative-sense virus genome used first make complementary strand
• Hiv binds wbc specifically the ccr5 receptor
•  gram positive cell walls contain a thick layer peptidoglycan
• Cell layer peptidoglycan gram negative walls thin also an
• Phase bacteria replicating bacterial growth environment exponential curve
• Prokaryotes episomes are a subset of plasmid can integrate genome bacterium
• Transposons are a type genetic element can insert remove rearrange
• Virions viruses replicate produce inside cell then be released
• Bacteriophage tail sheath acts syringe a
• Bacteriophage tail fibers act legs in
• Positive-sense rna virus genome is directly translated into proteins cell
• Rna provided virus complimentary strand negative-sense created by rna
• Cell cycle virus productive leaves host extrusion fusing
• Lytic cycle viral replication, the virus maxes cell's services
• Lysogenic cycle replication, a provirus/prophage integrates cell's genome replicated
• Superinfection when a bacteria infected bacteriophage
• Prions disease by converting proteins alpha-helix structures beta-plated sheet
• Viroids small plant pathogens short circular ss-rna protein
• Collagen made the alpha helix type secondary protein structure
• Collagen's role to provide strength flexibility
• Elastin's role to stretch recoil spring
• Keratin's role to function regulatory proteins contribute mechanical integrity
• Keratin makes hair nails up
• Actin protein makes up microfilaments thin filaments
• Tubulin protein makes up microtubules is
• Tubulin's role to provide structure chromosome separation mitosis meiosis
• Structural proteins polarity actin tubulin
• Myosin primary motor protein interacts actin
• Kinesins dyneins motor proteins microtubules
• Motor protein kinesin plays key roles aligning chromosomes
• Motor protein kinesin plays key roles depolymerizing microtubules
• Motor protein dynein involved sliding movement cilia flagella
• Kinesin brings vesicles positive end microtubule
• Cells cams adhesion molecules proteins found surface aid
• Cadherins type cam that mediate calcium-dependent cell adhesion
• Integrins group proteins membrane-spanning chains alpha beta
• Cell integrins type adhesion molecule function communicate ecm
• Selectins unique type cam bind carbohydrate molecules project
• Blood cells selectins type cam expressed white endothelial
• Cell adhesions called desmosomes created protein cadherin depend
• Protein cell extracellular matrix adhesion specific type called
• Cell carbohydrate adhesion by selectins to
• Ungated channels type of ion are
• Voltage-gated channels are type of ion channel
• Fraction phenotype heritability measures variability attributed genetic variation
• Cells chromosome germ occurs gametes diploid(2n autosomal copies
• Cell cycle:  interphase g1 s g2 stages time g0::cell
• Chromatin unraveled chromosomes interphase cell cycle process eukaryotic
• Cell phase  dna make cycle presynthetic gap::g1 creating
• Cell cycle s phase completed identical chromatids bound the centromere
• Cell cycle mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telephase cycle: cytokinesis::splitting cytoplasm organelles daughter
• Cell cycle damage restriction point g1/s arrest dna
• Cell transcription cycle: cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases(cdk responsible cycle bind
• Cell results cycle p53 gene mutated the tp53 site
• Fibers made of microtubules asters anchor centrioles cell membrane
• Fibers centriole pairs opposite poles cell kinetochore spindle
• Meiosis i results division homologous chromosomes separated generating
• S phase are 92 chromatids organized into 46 chromosomes into 23
• Mutations x chromosome carries lot information sex-linked/x-linked disorders
• Females carry diseased alleles x-chromosomes disease called carriers
• Y chromosome carries genetic information  one notable gene
• Spermatocytes-meiosis haploid spermatogonia-s phase->diploid primary i-> secondary ii-> spermatids
• Sperm pieces a head, midpiece and flagellum the midpiece filled mitochondria generate
• Chromatids prophase called meiosis i homologous chromosomes intertwine
• Crossing causes recombination unlink linked genes increases variety genetic
• Mendel's law(of independent assortment inheritance allele effect likelihood
• Homologous meiosis separate chromosomes i cell during metaphase pairs(tetrads
• Begins the follicular phase menstrual flow sheds uterine lining
• Women born oogonia undergone dna replication(past s phase
• Oocyte month primary undergo meiosis i produces a secondary
• Secondary oocytes arrested in metaphase ii fertilization occurs
• Pellucida the zona the corona radiata oocyte sperm layer cells
• Completion meiosis oocytes haploid pronuclei sperm ovum join create
• Phase days follicular divided the mense:1-7 and proliferative::8-14 by ovulation::14 the luteal::15-28
• Sexual differentiation occurs fetal period(9 weeks-birth presence y
• Production androgen low puberty where testosterone dramatically increases sperm
• Androgen insensitivity syndrome(ais occurs genetic male(xy female secondary
• Secreted human chorionic gonadotropin(hcg analog lh blastocyte uterine
• Location fertilization widest part fallopian tube called the ampulla
• Dsdna = double-stranded dna ssrna = single-stranded rna
• Aromaticity rules 1) cyclic 2) planar 3) conjugated 4) 4n+2
• Cytosine thymine pyridimines adenine  guanine = purines
• Helix watson crick sugar phosphate backbone outside nitrogenous bases inside
• Chargaff's rules adenine thymine guanine cytosine
• Dna handed makes turn nm bases span helix
• Left handed helices have no biological activity created highgc
• Dna probe sequence bind target gene interest pcr
• Dna wound histones = chromatin around
• Histone h2a h2b h3 dna proteins eukaryotes: h1 h4 
• Proteins dna called nucleoproteins associated with
• Light microscopy heterochromatin appears dark transitionally silent euchromatin appears bright
• Interphase heterochromatin remains wound euchromatin unwound
• Dna telomeres single repeating unit end order actual
• Telomeres functions prevent dna cleaved 2) lots gc bonds
• Centromeres composed of heterochromatin high gc-content are
• Replisome replication complex set specialized proteins assist dna
• Dna origin replication unwinds forks created proceeds copied
• Helicase responsible unwinding dna generating two-single stranded templates
• Single-stranded dna-binding proteins bind unraveled strands created helicase
• Supercoiling wrapping dna helical structure pushed telomeres replication
• Dna strands gyrase topoisomerase ii introduces negative supercoils
• Dna parental strand serve templates daughter semiconservative reatined
• Strand direction dna polymerase read template synthesizing complementary
• Strand replication direction copied fork  this read leading
• Dna okazaki fragments produced lagging strand compensate polymerase's
• Rna dna directly paired parent strand primase bind
• Dna polymerase iii::prokaryotes α::eukaryotes δ::eukaryotes synthesize leading lagging
• Primase synthesizes rna primer direction start replication strand
• Dna polymerase i::prokaryotes rna rnase h::eukaryotes remove added
• Dna polymerase δ έ α work synthesize leading
• Sliding clamp pcna proteins assembles trimer form helps
• Proto-oncogenes oncogenes mutated antioncogenes or tumor suppressor genes encord
• Oncogenes mutated genes cancer primarily encode cell cycle-related proteins
• Dna proofreading polymerase enzyme mechanism tests hydrogen bonds
• Proofreading distinguish parent daughter strands based amount of methylation
• Repair excision abbreviated dna mismatch enzymes detect/remove replication
• Thymine dimers adjacent caused by ultraviolet light eliminated dna
• Excision endonuclease part nucleotide repair makes nicks phosphodiester
• Ap site endonuclease removes damaged sequences dna abasic
• Dna recombinant vector technology fragment source multiplied gene
• Dna large cloning libraries regions technique produce amounts
• Dna complementary southern presence hybridization joining base pair
• Dna membrane sequence probe southern blots cut restriction
• Dideoxyribonucleotide hydrogen c2 c3 ribonucleotide adenosine triphosphate::ddatp
• Dideoxyribonucleotides important added polymerase can longer add chain
• Separation size dna nucleotides end sequence read the dideoxynucleotide
• Gene therapy side effect randomly inserted dna causing
• Gene mice germ line cloned transgenic altered introducing
• Rna abundancy: mrna>trna>rrna
• Ribosomal rna or rrna synthesized the nucleolus functions integral part
• End messenger rna synthesized the 3 ribosome translates mrna
• Rna polymerase transcribes mrna template dna strands
• Means mrna translates protein monocistronic euk product polycistronic
• Acids transfer rna or trna converts language nucleic amino
• Nascent begin existence to come
• Trna molecules connected ribosome be charged or activated amino acid
• Abundant rna: mrna, trna, rrna most
• Type amino acid activated different aminoacyl-trna synthetase requires high-energy bonds
• Bond high-energy aminoacyl-trna supply energy needed create peptide translation
• Ribosomal rna synthesized nucleolus functions integral part machinery
• Enzmyes made rna molecules called ribozymes
• Start codon methionine  aug
• Stop codon: uga, uaa and uag
• Genetic code is degenerate codon single amino acid
• Translation codon mrna recognized complementary anti-codon transfer rna
• Variable base called the wobble position
• Mutations wobble tend be silent or degenerate means effect expression
• Mutation codon missense amino acid substitutes nonsense truncation mutation
• Point mutation be silent or expressed a
• Expressed mutations either missense or nonsense can
• Nucleotides codon referred the reading frame
• Frameshift mutations occurs number nucleotides added deleted mrna
• Transcription results single strand mrna synthesized nucleotide dna
• Rna polymerase ii main transcriber mrna
• Transcription factors rna polymerase locate bind promoter region
• Rna located synthesizes rrna nucleus polymerase i nucleolus polymerase ii
• The coding or sense strand template transcription
• Bases start point end numbers left are upstream the 5
• Tata box rna polymerase binds notation
• Rna termination polymerase reaches sequence stop signal results
• Sequences noncoding called introns coding called exons
• Maturation hnrna includes splicing transcript remove introns ligate exons
• Introns excised spliceosomes form a lariat::lasso-shaped structure degraded
• Small nuclear spliceosome rna snrna molecules couple proteins
• End hnrna molecule added protects mrna longer 7-methylguanylate
• Multiple variants proteins encoded gene process as alternative splicing
• Process translation: initiation, elongation and termination of
• Codon release factor rf binds termination stop moves
• Polypeptide chain addition water molecule translation peptidyl transferase
• Chaperones  are specialized class proteins assist folding process
• Addition proteins phosphorylation phosphates kinases activate deactivate carboxylation
• Model site jacob-monod describe structure function operons  the
• Operon cluster genes transcribed single mrna trp 
• Protein code sites repressor parts operon jacob-monod model
• Gene site operons upstream regulator promoter operator structural
• Operator repressor coded regulator gene attaches site deactivating
• Repressor polymerase systems types operons inducible bound tightly
• Act gene control mechanisms products positive allowing produced
• Catabolite activator protein cap assists lac operon binding
• Corepressors activate repressors binding repressible systems
• Controls systems operons positive maintain inducible negative maintain repressible
• System shut repressible off: repressor-corepressor complex binds operon prevent
• Acts operon high local environment trp tryptophan  corepressor
• Transcription factors proteins search dna specific dna-binding motifs
• Transcription domain factor activation binding important regulatory proteins
• Dna response elements sequences binds specific transcription factors
• Gene expression amplified caused by enhancers or gene duplication occurs
• Regulators dna regulatory base sequences includes promoters, enhancers and response elements
• Gene elements promoter enhancers response grouped control gene's
• Chromatins heterochromatin inactive euchromatin active
• Acetylation addition ch(=o)ch3 is the
• Transcription histone acetylases dna methylases coactivators recruited factors
• Histone deacetylases proteins function remove acetyl groups results
• Dna methylases add methyl groups cytosine adenine molecules
• Spermatogenesis formation haploid sperm meiosis seminiferous tubules
• Seminal fluid produced the seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral
• Seminal vesicles provide fructose nourish sperm
• The seminal vesicles and prostate gland give fluid mildly alkaline
• The bulbourethral/cowper's glands produce clear viscous fluid cleans remnants
• Semen combination of sperm and seminal fluid
• Sperm travels seminiferous tubules-->epididymis-->vas deferens-->ejaculatory duct-->urethra-->penis seve(n
• Testes functional components: seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells leydig
• Flagella gain motility the epididymis stored ejaculation
• Sperm produced highly coiled seminiferous tubules provided sustenance
• Cells of leydig secrete testosterone male hormone androgen
• Lower end uterus the cervix connected the vaginal canal sperm
• Fallopian tubes connected the uterus site fetal development 
• Eggs theperitoneal sac travel the fallopian tube/oviduct lined cilia
• Eggs ovulated the peritoneal sac lines abdominal cavity
• Ovaries located pelvice cavity consists thousands of follicles multilayered
• Widest part fallopian tube called the ampulla site fertilization
• Microtubule organizing center centrosome small sets arranged specific
• Ova produced in follicles are
• Follicles located the ovaries are in
• External female anatomy the vulva the
• Primary oocytes formed age birth
• Primary oocytes arrested in prophase i meiosis
• Secondary oocytes arrested in metaphase ii meiosis
• Ovulated egg menstruation a secondary oocyte
• Placenta a endocrine organ the is
• Eukaryotes ribosomal subunits of 40s 60s
• Gram positive bacteria turn purple staining after
• Gram negative bacteria turn pink-red staining
• Gram negative bacteria outer membrane phospholipids lipopolysaccharides
• Reverse transcriptase to make complementary dna cdna ssrna template
• Viroids function by turning genes resulting cellular metabolic structural
• Smooth er functions to synthesize lipids, detoxify proteins transport materials
• Nucleolus dense structure where rrna synthesized
• Prokaryotes ribosomal subunits of 30s and 50s
• Transformation incorporation bacterial genome dna fragments external medium
• Conjugation transfer genetic material bacteria pilus
• Plasmid transferred f+ f cells
• Bacteria conjugation part genome transferred hfr cell recipient
• Transduction transfer genetic material bacteria bacteriophage
• Interphase cell cycle includes the g1, gs and g2 phases
• Cell replicates genetic material the s stage cycle
• Chromatids bound the centromere prior replication the s stage cell
• Cell checks stuff time the g2 stage cycle
• Mitosis cytokinesis occurs the m stage cell cycle
• Cell determines dna good condition synthesis the g1/s checkpoint
• G1/s checkpoint cell cycle is restriction point
• The p53 protein control restriction point g1/s checkpoint
• Cell ensures achieved adequate size organelles properly replicated
• The tp53 gene responsible p53 protein production
• Homologues intertwine process called synapsis come
• Synapsis occurs prophase i meiosis
• Homologous chromosomes line opposite sides metaphase plate during metaphase
• Mitosis occurs in somatic cells
• Meiosis occurs in germ cells aka gametocytes
• Nuclear membrane dissolves the prophase mitosis
• Nucleoli disappear the prophase mitosis in
• Centrioles migrate opposite sides cell the prophase mitosis
• Spindle apparatus begins form the prophase mitosis
• Kinetochore chromosome contacted spindle fiber the prophase mitosis
• Kinetochore part the centromere chromosome a
• Metaphase mitosis chromosomes line plate
• Plate the metaphase the equatorial is also
• Sister chromatids separated pulled opposite poles the anaphase mitosis
• Nuclear membrane reforms during the telophase mitosis
• Spindle apparatus disappears during the telophase mitosis
• Cytosol organelles split daughter cells during the telophase mitosis
• Chromosomes homologous number opposite parental origin
• Homologous chromosomes segregated opposite poles cell during anaphase i
• Chromosomes fully decondense during telophase i meiosis
• The centromere holds sister chromatids together
• Point crossing-over called the chiasma plural chiasmata
• Microtubules form asters anchor centrioles cell membrane the prophase mitosis
• Meiosis i results homologous chromosomes separated generating haploid
• Meiosis ii results separation sister chromatids as equational division
• Mendel's law states that the inheritence allele effect likelihood
• Law mendel's independent assortment fulfilled by crossing occurs during prophase
• Factor mendel's law states production gametes copies hereditary
• Mendel's law fulfilled by disjunction occurs during anaphase i meiosis
• Disjunction anaphase i when homologous pairs separate pulled opposite
• Sry gene located the y chromosome
• Sry gene stands for sex-determining region y
• Sry gene codes for a transcription factor initiates testis
• Sperm cells produced the seminiferous tubules
• Sertoli cells nourish sperm seminiferous tubules
• Males leydig cells secrete testosterone androgens
• Sperm flagella gain motility the epididymis
• Sperm stored the epididymis are in
• Ejaculatory ducts penis eventually merge form the urethra
• Seminal vesicles contribute fructose alkaline fluid to nourish protect sperm
• Prostate gland produces alkaline fluid the
• The bulbourethral glands produce clear viscous fluid that cleans remnants
• Semen composed of sperm and seminal fluid
• Pathway sperm order inside is: seminiferous tubules, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra
• Primary spermatocytes formed s stage spermatogenesis
• Secondary spermatocytes formed meiosis i spermatogenesis
• Spermatids formed meiosis ii spermatogenesis are
• Maturation sperm germ cells called spermatozoa
• The acrosome sperm made of modified golgi apparatus
• The midpiece sperm generates atp from fructose
• Oocyte fertilized undergo meiosis ii ovum
• Cytokinesis secondary oocyte a polar body and ovum formed
• Zona pellucida refers to an acellular mixture glycoproteins protect
• Corona radiata refers to a protective layer follicle cells
• Gnrh released hypothalamus is from
• Fsh released the anterior pituitary response to gnrh
• Lh released the anterior pituitary response to gnrh
• Males fsh stimulates the sertoli cells triggers spermatogenesis
• Cells males lh the interstitial produce testosterone interstitial leydig
• Females fsh stimulates development of ovarian follicles
• Females lh causes ovulation in
• Females fsh lh stimulate production of estrogens and progesterone
• Phases menstrual cycle include follicular phase, ovulation, luteal finally menstruation
• The decidua vascularized glangularized response to estrogen release the follicular phase
• Fsh lh released the follicular phase menstrual cycle
• Ovulation stage menstrual cycle stimulated sudden surge in lh
• Lh surge the ovulation stage menstrual cycle occurs because estrogen
• Lh promotes ruptured follicle corpus luteum luteal phase
• Corpus luteum secretes progesterone luteal phase menstrual cycle
• Progesterone functions to maintain uterine lining luteal phase menstrual
• High estrogen and progesterone levels cause negative feedback gnrh lh fsh
• Menstruation occurs fertilization if there
• Endometrial lining sloughed menstruation because estrogen and progesterone levels drop
• The blastocyst produces human chorionic gonadotropin hcg fertilization occurs menstruation
• Hcg an lh analogue functions to maintain corpus luteum
•  hcg levels drop end trimester because the placenta takes
• Menopause occurs ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone ages 45-55
• Fsh lh levels rise menopause and
• Widest part fallopian tube called the ampulla
• Acrosome reaction sperm it comes contact egg's cell membrane
• Membrane fertilization egg formed calcium released depolarized
• Fertilization membrane functions to prevent multiple sperm penetration
• Cortical reaction fertilization refers to the release granules egg
• Cell blastocyst groups the inner mass the trophoblast
• The trophoblast cells blastocoel rise the chorion
• Cell mass protrudes blastocoel rise the organism
• The chorion extraembryonic membrane develops the  placenta
• Placenta functional supported the yolk sac
• Umbilical cord formed the yolk sac the allantois
• Allantois involved in early fluid exchange the yolk sac embryo
• Amnion surrounds the allantois the
• Amnion a thin tough membrane filled amniotic fluid
• Embryo blasted cavity a blastula blastula hollow ball cells
• Membrane invagination blastocoel called the archenteron primitive gut formed
• The archenteron develops the gut later into
• Opening archenteron called the blastopore the
• Notochord forms mesoderm induces the neural plate form neural folds
• Cell totipotent capable forming into type including germ layers
• Pluripotent cell capable forming germ layers derivatives placenta
• Cell multipotent capable forming into specific subset types rbc
• Cell induced type called a responder
• Autocrine signals act on the cell secreted place
• Paracrine signals act on cells local area
• Cell juxtacrine signals act on cells diffusion directly stimulates
• Endocrine signals act on distant target tissues secreted hormones
• Cell apoptotic blebs are contained parts underwent apoptosis individual
• Senesence results failure cells divide approximately 50 divisions vitro
• O blood partial pressure maternal is higher fetal remember
• Hbf a higher affinity oxygen hba
• Placenta releases  progesterone  estrogen  hcg
• Umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood fetus
• Umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood fetus
• Atrium foramen ovale one-way valve connects left closes
• Fetal ductus arteriosus shunts blood pulmonary artery aorta
• Pathogens small cross placental barrier diffusion require special
• The ductus venosus shunts blood returning placenta umbilical vein
• Liver bypassed embryogenesis the ductus venosus
• Foramen ovale bypasses the lungs the
• Ductus arteriosus bypasses the lungs the
• Organogenesis occurs the first trimester human development
• Movement begins in the second trimester human development
• Human face distinctly the second trimester development
• Digits elongate the second trimester human development
• Tremendous growth occurs the second trimester human development
• Development rapid growth brain continue the third trimester human
• Transfer antibodies mother fetus occurs the third trimester human development
• Cervix thins the first phase birth
• Amniotic sac ruptures the first phase birth
• Uterine contractions occur the second phase birth
• Uterine contractions coordinated hormones prostaglandin and oxytocin
• Placenta umbilical cord expelled the third phase birth
• The amnion lies inside the chorion produces amniotic fluid
• Nucleic acid annealing form hybridization occurs laboratory e.g
• Hydrogen bonds broken dna melted aka denatured
• Recombinant dna is dna genetic information multiple sources  e.g
• +)rna viruses infective genomes acts mrna immediately translated
• Genetics penetrance is the proportion people genotype express phenotype
• Selection genetics disruptive extremes continuum middle
• Similar convergent evolution the development traits independently separate populations
• Acetylation histones causes uncoiling dna/histone structures increased transcription
• Aa positively conservative mutation change base pair replaced
• Nucleoside sugar base = +
• Shine-dalgarno sequence a sequence prokaryotic mrna ribosome recognizes binds
• Mrna cap a g nucleotide attached backwards end site
• Pyrimidine transition dna sequence is replacement purine
• Purine transversion dna sequence is replacement pyrimidine
• Kinetochore protein structure chromosome serves anchoring site microtubules
• Purines adenine guanine the are
• Pyrimidines cytosine thymine uracil the
• Base uracil rna thymine dna
• Molecule adenine this is
• Molecule thymine this is
• Molecule uracil this is
• Molecule guanine this is
• Molecule cytosine this is
• Potency bacterial strain dose number bacteria required infection
• Stop codons uaa uga uag
• Generally speaking mutation error dna sequence
• Lysosomes membrane-bound vesicles hydrolytic enzymes
• 3rd base codon matters bases ca ag transition
• Eukaroytes episomes are non-integrated extrachromosomal closed circular dna molecules
• Southern blot detecting specific dna sequence sample
• Northern blot detecting specific rna sequence sample
• Simple genetic traits exhibit mendelian monogenic inheritance patterns
• Complex genetic traits are groups genes influenced environment
• Dna polymerase synthesizes strand adding complementary nucleotides end
• Dna add primase functions rna primers template strands
• Dna rnase functions remove primer rna fragments variant
• Dna ligase i functions join okazaki fragments lagging
• Single bacteria circular molecule dna origin replication chromosome
• Archaea single circular molecule dna origin replication
• Eukaryotes linear chromosomes dna origin replication
• Archaea prokaryotes single-cellular organisms are
• Telomerase functions add repetitive nucleotide sequences ends eukaryotic
• Start codon aug the is
• Rna polymerase functions line connect complementary nucleotides based
• Eukaryotes mrna processed transcription through polyadenylation capping splicing
• Spliceosome removes introns transcribed pre-mrna splicing
• Small a spliceosome composed snrnas protein complexes called snrnps
• Microrna mirna functions pair complementary rna prevent translation
• Ribosome rna binding sites aminoacyl p growing peptide
• Termination translation occurs codon moves site recognized release
• Post-translational modifications proteins occur er and/or golgi
• Glycosylation protein post-translational modification carbohydrate molecules attached
• Lipidation protein post-translational modification lipid attached
• Heterochromatin tightly packed dna is
• Euchromatin loosely packed dna is
• Inducer–repressor control lac operon negative gene expression blocked by
• Positive control active factor required gene expression
• Prokarytes promoter region dna binds rna polymerase proteins
• Prokaryotes operator section dna repressor protein binds inhibit
• Basic steps pcr heat denature dna cool slightly
• Examples tumor suppressor proteins p53 prb retinoblastoma
• Proto-oncogene normal gene oncogene due mutations increased expression
• Dna methylation typically acts repress gene transcription
• Adult somatic cells, dna methylation typically occurs cpg dinucleotides
• Small rnas nucleolar snornas class molecules primarily guide
• Locus specific location position gene chromosome
• Genetic leakage genes flow species e.g antibiotic resistance
• Synaptonemal complex protein structure forms homologous chromosomes meiosis
• Chromosome end inversion rearrangement segment reversed
• Translocation mutation occurs portion chromosome breaks relocated position
• Mutagen substance increases rate mutations
• Carcinogen substance induces unregulated growth cells i.e cancer
• Due genetic drift change frequency allele population random
• Hardy–weinberg principle states large populations allele frequencies remain
• Recombination frequency genes located chromosomes
• Speciation evolutionary process reproductively isolated biological populations evolve
• Centrosome found cell nucleus centrioles
• Cells tenets theory basic unit structure life living
• Defining characteristics eukaryotic cells compartmentalization membrane-bound organelles nucleus
• Bacilli rod-shaped bacteria are
• Spirilli spiral-shaped bacteria are
• Cocci spherical-shaped bacteria are
• Chemotaxis ability prokaryotic cells detect chemical stimuli move
• Virus self-replicating biological unit reproduce specific host cell
• Cellular senescence phenomenon normal diploid cells cease divide
• Hayflick limit number times human cell divide telomeres
• Act macrophages to phagocytose pathogens antigen presenting cells
• Mast cells function to release histamine allergic response brings
• Ions cell na+/k+ pump transports na+ k+ atp
• Species adaptive radiation divergence multiple time subgroups original
• Molecule d-ribose this is
• Molecule d-deoxyribose this is
• Assortative mating animals choose mates similar
• Disassortative mating animals choose mates dissimilar
• Random mating individual equally chosen mate
• Equivalent offspring inclusive fitness measured the number individual rears
• Incidence rate disease percentage cases healthy population time

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