OCR A Biology

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• Succession ss occurs seral stages main ss's pioneer
• B memory cells 4.1.1(f provide immunological remembers specific
• Adaptations pioneer species produce lots seed/spores blown wind
• Activity organism dependent metabolic reactions/processes e.g uptake nitrates
• Energy sun universally conc forever uni expands dissipated
• Photo resp biomass/interelation forms biomass respiro breaks atp
• Energy bonds released form lots atp atoms molecules
• Electrons excited e chemiosis pigments absorb suns energy
• E energy releases protons gradient atp transport chain
• Om heterotrophic/autotrophic hetero gains ingestion auto produces photo
• Light harvesting system reaction centres collective collectively photosystem
• E's rc ps1 light ps2 released entering atp
• E's ps1  cyclic photo cyclic photophosphorylation leaving release
• Carbon calvin cycle unstable 3-carbon molecules co2 diffuses
• Fixation cc co2 fixed incorperated organic molecules
• Limiting factors  law law reactant shortest supply
• Photo limiting factors explained temp  all reactions cc
• Glycolysis stage occurs cytoplasm anaerobic dont require o2
• Primary occurs sand succession when;  volcanoes erupt depositing
• Atp molecules phosphorylation forming nad pi attached tp
• Matrix structure mito mitochondrial dna enzymes needed kc
• Form acetyl oxidative reaction aerobic h2 atoms co2
• Reduced nad form cycle acetyl dehydrogenation atp formed
• Nad written ways writing nadh reduced number charged
• E energy form h2 h+ atp o2 oxidative
• Aerobic molecules o2 anaerobic efficient forms atp glucose
• Fermentation o2 e stops nad/fad important absence act
• Lactate lactic acid pyruvate h2 nad converted o2
• Pyruvate ethanal nad continues ethanol alcoholic fermentation irreversible
• Atp acetyl respiratory substances form fatty glycerol coa
• Rq lipids measured respirometer rq=co2 formed/o2 consumed 6o2
• Factors ecosystem abiotic/biotic living e.g made organisms interacting
• Soil abiotic factors diff types affect organisms chances
• Food webs/chains energy trophic consumer show transfer biomass
• Biomass tl biomass/pyramid mass living material present organism
• Biomass tl lower previous consists cells/tissues organisms present
• Biomass consumers convert food tissue energy lost dont
• Tls producer pc energy agriculture max animal feed
• Molecules organic decomposers dead essential detritivores breaks smaller
• Bacteria n2 plants nh3 mutualistic gain nitrogen-fixing relationships
• Compounds  ammonification ammonification decomposers convert n2 dead organisms
• Nh3 n2 atm living non-living processes n2-fixing bacteria
• Co2 c atm forms organic passed released dead
• Co2 global warming atm seas/oceans  inc leading temp
• Excitatory nt depolarisation postsynoptic membrane threshold met ap
• Soil species organisms small colonisers pioneer organic secondary
• Animal succession consumers plant suitable species undergo similar
• Human activities climax succession effect halt natural flow
• Pop sample estimate size formula individuals estimating plant/animal
• Pop growth phase steady individuals birth constraints limit
• Factors expo limiting carrying density independent growth max
• Comp factor interspecific species resource pops types outcompeting/cep
• Pop stage size survival/repro comp intraspecific growth curve
• Predator pop stage prey survival/repro dec predation  pops
• Importance organisms conservation economic resources required survival income
• Preservation sensitive protection areas bannning/restricting human influence preserves
• Inhibitory nt hyperpolarisation postsynoptic membrane preventing initiation ap
• Resources sustainable run management aims save renewable economically
• Large prod cutting dec soil scale timber  large-scale
• Fish fishing caught overfishing dec pops dont regenerate
• Human balance pops animals density masai mara ele
• Crop techniques improve land damage terrai region sustainability
• Lowland water bogs decline conserve peats conserved maintain
• Whalers access galapogas islands theyre dealt released domestic
• Effects human activities antartica preventing global warming breaks
• Include supported animals red plant lake district animals/plants
• Respond animals plants responses animals/plants stimuli internal/external enviros
• Diff neurones stimuli nervous ways responding n/h change
• Motor neurone transmits impulses sensory/relay effector muscles/glands long
• Schwann cells impulses accross transmitted  gaps speed small
• Photoreceptors  photoreceptors detect light e.g cone cells eyes
• Na+ potential stimuli resting stretch mediated channels  receptors
• Fungi kingdom 4.2.2(c e.g yeast mould uni/multicellular n/mbo
• K+ na+ resting creating pot actively transported leads
• Channels na+ k+ making axon resting open voltage
• Initial 1st wave depolarisation stimuli region depolarising triggers
• Action size stimuli pots created threshold effect level
•  temp transmission faster effect temp diffusion ions high
• Region depolarised stimuli wave depolarisation quick acts repolarised
• Ns  ans split outcome activity e.g heart dec
• Areas cerebral passed cerebrum impulses brain info motor
• Pituitary stores hormones section pitiuitary glands releases regulate
• Rbc cells nucleus/stem nucleus replicate haematopoietic stem maintain
• Neurone na+ pacinian ending layers membrane channels background
• Nerve impulse end ap starts/ends action potential starting
• Refractory action period period/hyperpolarisation pot axon exited short
• Ap postsynoptic broken triggerred neurone nt triggers released
• Nt muscle cholinergic synapses  acetylcholine present cns neuromuscular
• Acetylcholine ap triggered hydrolysed actelycholinesterase form choline ethanoic
• Plantae kingdom 4.2.2(c multicellular n/mbo cloroplasts cellulose cell
• Test interbreeding applies asexual relationships
• Single multiple roles synapse impulses post synoptic pre
• Stimuli release nt causing number synapse reach threshold
• Summation nt trigger ap postsynoptic neurone
• Spatial summation diff presynoptic neuornes form nt pass
• Temporal nt ap summation summataion single presynoptic neurone
• Unmyelinated depolarisation nodes protein channels myelinated occurs myelin
• Repolarisation efficiency myelinated efficient requires atp na+ pump
• Diameter transmission effect speed trsnsmission action potential affected
• Pns cns ns made brain spinal cord neurones
• Somatic ns system concious control voluntarily input sense
• Ns muscle autonomous autonomic system subconscious control involuntarily
• Neurones brain advantage central control centre communicate quicker
• Brain scan scanned photo mri magnetic resonance imaging
• Info cerebellum balance controls unconscious functions e.g posture
• Medulla controls autonomous e.g heart rate/breathing rate regulatory
• Hypothalamus produces regulates temp water balance centres parasympathetic/sympathetic
• Synapse nt junction neurones effector signal transmitted neurotransmitters
• Synoptic cleft gap axon neurone dendrites
• Presynoptic neurone impulse arrives along
• Postsynoptic neurone recieves neurotransmitters that
• Knob synop synoptic swollen end presynoptic neurone ser
• Synoptic vesicle  vesicle nt travels pre synop membrane
• Receptor neurotransmitter  neurotransmiter specific molecules binding nt postsynoptic
• Synoptic neurone transmission ap membrane ca2+ channels open
• Cell signalling hormonal/nervous systems cell-signalling releases chemical affects
• Stimuli  stimuli change enviro is
• Cell body nucleus surrounded cyto er/mito produce neurotransmitters
• Dendrons cell short extensions body transmit impulses divide
• Axons transmit electrical impulses cell body cylindrical cyto
• Sensory neurone transmits impulse receptor motor relay brain
• Relay neurone transmits impulses made short axons dendrons
• Resting neurone transmitting impulse channels gated membrane accross
• Pathway receptor--sensory--relay--motor--effector
• Myelin schwann cells axons neurones sheeth speed covered
• Action voltage pot potential occurs membrane shape due
• Sensory receptors detect change enviro
• Sensory receptors stimuli connvert pathway specificity transducers convert
• Mechanoreceptors respond pressure/movement e.g pacinian corpuscle  skin detecting
• Chemoreceptors respond chemicals e.g olfactoryreceptor detects smell
• Thermoreceptors detect heat e.g end bulbs krause tongue
• Selection pressures 4.2.2(e factors affecting chances survival/repro natural
• Continuous variation 4.2.2(f characteristics takie range controlled polygenes
• Proteins links diff dna evolving comparisons 4.2.2(c organisms
• Domain organisms system groups 4.2.2(c current classification systrem
• Prokaryotae kingdom split 4.2.2(c  prokaryotae kindoem divided kingdomes
• Sum x number sd 4.2.2(f root x)^2 n-1
• Moths peppered ir dark mutations 4.2.2(h pale camo
• T values students test pops sd^2 h0 diff
• Corrolation data rank corr coefficient sets +ve rs
• Organisms fossil record rocks complex ads 4.2.2(e evidence
• Fossil record disads 4.2.2(e incomplete organisms soft bodied
• Groups organisms ads phylogenetic trees 4.2.2(d advantages confirms
• Anatomical adaptations 4.2.2(g body coverings hair feathers shells
• Behaviours behavioural adaptations 4.2.2(g behavioral survival playing dead
• Variation alleles diff genetic parents 4.2.2(f include genes
• Enviro variation 4.2.2(f plants affected animals due mobility 
• Variation inter/ra 4.2.2(f differences characteristics species interspecific diff
• Evidence evo study comparative 4.2.2(e palaeontology fossils record
• Species kingdom groups 4.2.2(a  kingdoms are biggest/broadest smallest specific
• System taxanomic 4.2.2(a famous taxonomic hierachy groups domain
• Species individual organisms fertile offspring 4.2.2(a  ends classification
• Prokaryotae kingdom 4.2.2(c unicellular nucleus/membrane bound organelle small
• Protoctista kingdom 4.2.2(c proroctista unicellular eukaryotes nucleus/memrane bound
• Dec bio number species deforstation animal 4.2.1(f directly
• Dec agriculture grow species food kill pests reduce
• Captive animals organisms suitable release 4.2.1(e diseases havent
• Situ natural habitat in/ex 4.2.1(h
• Organisms classify abundance conservation extinct species endangered 4.2.2(a
• Species areas situ allowing preserves wildlife time 4.2.1(h
• Habitat bio species 4.2.1(a number found area supports
• Species bio diff living meadow 4.2.1(a components richness
• Aesthetic reasons enviro maintain bio 4.2.1(g presence diff
• Economic reasons maintain bio 4.2.1(g soil erosion/desertification occur
• Conditions organisms abiotic factors sensors non-living habitat direct
• Areas low bio species 4.2.1(a succesful stressful enviro
• Low bio areas conserving 4.2.2(a species adapted extreme
• Random sampling 4.2.1(b selecting individuals chance indual equal
• Random sample strata systematic smaple line transect non-random
• B effector cells 4.1.1(f divide form plasma clones
• Biodiverse species alleles survival rates 4.2.1(a variation dna
• Genetic bio 4.2.1(a mutation create allele interbreeding diff
• Genetic indivuals dec bio breeding pop captive small
• Sampling animals insects tree living organisms 4.2.1(b pooter
• Sampling species quadrat bar recorded  frame plants 4.2.1(b
• Quadrat density 1m estimate grids frame 4.2.1(b individual
• Host virus directly attacks 4.1.1(a viral gm cell
• Protoctista fungi cells digest directly attacks 4.1.1(a break
• Toxins hosts bacteria produce indirect/fungi 4.1.1(a damage tissues
• Scientists design drugs models molecules 4.1.1(m complex computer
• Drugs loss bio life derivation effect 4.1.1(m derived
• Pharmocognetics e.g drugs gene 4.1.1(m interweaving knowledge actions
• Synthetic biology 4.1.1(m bioogy genetic engineering pops bacteria
• T helper cells production 4.1.1(f cd4 receptors bind
• T killer cells 4.1.1(f destroy pathogen antigen perforin
• T cells memory 4.1.1(f part immunological invasion divide
• T regulator cells 4.1.1(f supress immune system control/regulate
• Plasma cells 4.1.1(f produce antibodies antigen release circulation
• B cells antibodies humoral immunity activated antigens pathogen
• Disease autoimmune 4.1.1(k immune system attcks healthy body
• Indirect transmission pathogens animal 4.1.1(b travel individuals incodirectly
• Transmission dieses animals humans reduced increased poor 4.1.1(b
• Pathogens plant transmission 4.1.1(b direct contact healthy part
• Disease factors affecting transmission plants 4.1.1(b crops susceptible
• Bacteria cell walls shaped diff gram red gram-positive
• Viruses gm host 4.1.1(a parasitic non-living agents basic
• Protoctista 4.1.1(a group eukaryotic cells protistsa disease parasitic
• Pathogens specific phagocytes antigens defences rid temp stimulate
• Blood smear lymphocytes 4.1.1(e made spreading single drop
• Factors affecting predator prey pops affect sizes e.g
• Phagocytes englulfed pathogens opsonins bind 4.1.1(e produce chemicals
• Antigens immune specific cells system surface speeds specific/non
• Antigen antibody chains bind specific identical polypeptide 4.1.1(h
• Respond rapidly pathogen attack molecules cell plants 4.1.1(c
• Cells callose infected physical defenses deposited prevent pathogens
• Active natural immunity memmory cells 4.1.1(j t/b produced
• Baby natural passive immunity antibodies makes 4.1.1(j born
• Artificial passive immunity 4.1.1(j antibodies formed individual extracted
• Artificial active immunity safe pathogen bacteria/viruses live antigens
• Immunity disease vaccine prevents spreads rapidly number pan/epidemics
• Antibiotic mrsa c.difficile resistent bacteria examples 4.1.1(n body
• Specific defences em skin microorganisms pathogens body lysozymes
•  regeneration tp molecules regenerated rubp energy supplied atp
• Reduction molecules reduced cc gp tp nadp atp
• Organic molecules smaller inorganic photo/respiration breaking/forming photo forms
• O2 e's rc ps2 photolysis basics e formed
• P+ o2 h+ conc form photolysis waste product
• Light forming organic atp energy bonds molecules build
• Break bonds energy respiro om organic molecule broken
• Conc atp protons gradient energy primary prod chemiosis
• Pigments absorb specific wavelengths light reflect
• Primary pigment chlorophyll absorbs red/blue light reflects green
• Pigments embedded chloro diff primary b carotenoids xanthophylls
• Diff shades/colours leaves due combo pigments
• Light harvesting chloro system b carotenoids xanthophylls embedded
• Light independent occurs stroma raw mat co2 deprndent
• Water balance needed gain/loss co2 diffuses stoma promoting
• Li light limiting factors photo intensity energy source
• Co2 limiting factors photo source c conc fixation
• Temp limiting factors photo reactions cc controlled enzymes
• Water limiting photo stoma co2 factor closes dry
• Bond energy amount involved is
• Conc li gp tp photo limiting factors explained
• Co2 conc tp photo limiting factors explained fixation
• Light form nadp reduced stages photo overview dependent
• Respiration coenzymes reactions multi step pathway enzyme controlled
• Nad fad h+ reduced nad/fad e accepts oxidises
• Atp fermentation breaks organic molecule small inorganic o2
• Lactate ferm alcoholic occurs cells forms overview yeast
•  obligate anaerobes  anaerobes survive o2 presence e.g prokaryotes
• Faculative anaerobes o2 respire aerobically presence anaerobically absence
• O2 obligate aerobes atp forms presence individual cells
• Respiro occurs prokaryotes cell membrances mito
• Proteins lipids carbs respiratory energy alcohol pathway store/release
• Outer membrane structure mito creates cellular compartment ideal
• Membrane structure mito atp synthase
• Cristae structure mito foldings membrane sa
• Intermembrane spaces structure mito  small builds steep conc
• Light plants abiotic factors success adapted diff intensities
• Temp abiotic factors affect enzyme-controlled metabollic reactions rate
• Plant h2o availability abiotic factors  availability  low leads
• O2 availability water abiotic factors  fast flowing cold
• Co2 levels fluctuate photo occurs atm day presence
• Co2 atm released levels rising global concs increasing
• Change succession process ecosystems time e.g organisms moving
• Primary succession occurs newly formed land exposed areas
• Secondary succesion occurs areas land soil present animal/plant
• Primary succession begins colonisation of  inhospitable enviro pioneer
• Nitrification oxidation reaction well-aerated soils nitrifying bacteria oxidise
• Denitrification n2 denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates soil back
• Pyramid energy represents amount biomass/energy converted biomass
• Transfer energy tl  energy measured kj/m2/y biomass transferred
• Climax species bio dominant stable change time making
• Distribution organisms factors uneven ecosystem due residing areas
• Inc/dec pop sizes immigration/birth indivuals emigration/death decreases
• Gross prod energy production converted net prod/net total
• Prod generation primary/secondary biomass producers primary consumer secondary
• Ecological effiency biomass/energy transfer/biomass/energy transfer
• Mass dry calcing water dry/fresh material scientists calc
• Ecotourism tourism directed natural enviro supports conservation efforts
• Active conservation/protection programs masai mara  ensure balance locals
• Peat bogs wet composed wetland vegetation shrubs mosses
• Shoots area small-scale coppicing maintains bio cut grow
• Dec interspecific squireels food chances pop red/grey grey
• Include power station snowdania park animals/plants supported powerstation
• Dec terrai deforestation continues region and   if left
• Sustainable management forrest forrestry terrai region  achieved working
• Techniques conservation maintaing bio human actions manages ecosystems
• Substrate level phosphorylation  phosphorylation forming atp
•  predation comp factor biotic form interspecific
• Prey evolved techniques  predator adaptations predators highly efficient
• O2 called oxidative h+ atp requires form energy
• Neurone reflex arc involuntary action stimuli receptor sensory
• Reflex arc describing situation identify specific receptor stimulus
• Spinal cord column nervous tissue running back protected
• Reflex knee-jerk type spinal brain involved
• Reflex patella knee-jerk knee-cap tapped tendons stretch acting
• Reflex leg knee-jerk hammer/diagnoses tap hammer extends relaxes
• Reflex knee-jerk maintains posture balance 
• Reflex blinking type in/voluntary cranial involves brain sc
• Occurs cornea e.g blinking reflex stimulated touched protects
• Neurone cranial blinking reflex process cornea irritated foreign
• Response brain blinking reflex consensual eyelids shut examine
• Reflexes chances survival involuntary brain focus complex tasks
• Skeletal common movement e.g biceps triceps
• Muscle involuntary walls smooth found hollow organs e.g
• Hormones main types formed adrenal cortex androgens release
• Muscle skeletal mito spr fibres sarcolemma sarcoplasm made
• Parallel protein filaments long made myofibrils cylindrical organelles
• Myofibrils sarcomere light bands present region dark myosin
• Fibres features skeletal muscle  individual muscle streaks connective
• Contraction light bands dark simult sarcomeres effect h-zones
• Myosin filaments globular heads whihc binding sites atp
• Actin heads filaments binding binds contraction sites myosin
• Hb saturation partial pressure o2 3.1.2(j
• Fibres motor supply supplied neurone unit stronger force
• Acetylcholine ap reaches nj ca2+ synoptic transmission binds
• Depolarisation spread sarcolemma t-tubules spr runs deep muscle
• Head ca2+ binds binding myosin actin filament atp
• Atp periods excercise short creatine store po4 ways
• Pressure time heart 3.1.2(e vs
• Translocation 3.1.3(f
• Common cations 2.1.2(p uses of
• Common anions 2.1.2(p uses of
• Endocrine system made glands specialised secrete hormones directly
• Occur due hypo pituitary gland located close hormonal
• Gross structure brain cerebrum cerebellum medulla hypothalamus pituitary
• Examples endocrine glands pituitary forms growth hormone adh
• Examples endocrine glands pineal forms melatonin affects reproduction
• Examples endocrine glands thyroid forms thyroxine controls metabolic
• Examples endocrine glands thymus forms thymosin controls production
• Examples endocrine glands adrenal forms adrenaline heart/breathing rate
• Converts examples endocrine glands pancreas forms insulin glucose
• Examples endocrine glands testis forms testosterone controls production
• Forms examples endocrine glands ovary oestrogen controls ovulation 
• Glands exocrine secrete hormones ducts organs
• Hormones released/transported?  chemical messengers released directly bloodstream gland
• Transcription steroid hormones lipid soluble pass membrane bind
• Non-steroid hormones hydrophillic repelled membrane bind receptors triggers
• Hormonal nervous system communicates transmission travels targets differences
• Adrenal region gland forms location structure found top
• Hormones production adrenal cortex controlled produced pituitary glands
• Cortisol main types hormones produced adrenal cortex glucocorticoids
• Hormones main types produced adrenal cortex mineratocorticoids e.g
• Glandular organs forms digestive enzymes secretes hormones pancreas
• Digestive exocrine glandular tissue enzymes forms enzymes/pancreatic juice
• Exocrine glands  tissue small regions endocrine islets langerhans
• Staining iol pa islets langerhans lightly stained form
• Cells alpha produce/secrete iol glucagon beta insulin abundant
• E.g adrenaline blood hormones adrenal medulla released sympathetic
• Differential staining 2.1.1(c distinguish cellular components cell types 
• Res light electron images red/mag comparison 2.1.1(f typically
• Water good medium transport h2o solvent/transport habitats  why
• Glucose stored amylopectin/glycogen suited storage plants roles 2.1.2(f)and(g
• Reagent strips 2.1.2(q test presence rs finds exact
• Light colorimeter 2.1.2(r quantifies absorption/transmission colored sol higher
• Biosensors 2.1.2(r biological components determine presence conc molecules 
• Property globular proteins regulate vital processes examples vps
• Catalysing includes enzymes intra/extra cellular reactions 2.1.4(b intra
• Cofactor prosthetic group amylase h2co3 2.1.4(e cl-  zn2+
• Site roles membrane 2.1.5(a partially permeable barrier chemical
• Red pigment betalin 2.1.5(c betroot membrane beet distrusted
• Osmosis plants animals experiment 2.1.5(e potato/onion diff conc
• Asexual mitosis repro 2.1.6(c)and(e occurs animals fungi plants
• Xylem vascular meristems phloem 2.1.6(j cambium form tissue
• O2 tidal vital breathing rate link demands volume
• Xylem make cut colored observing vessels 3.1.3(b transverse
• Xerophyte:hydrophyte examples 3.1.3(e xerophytes cacti marram grass hyfrophytes
• Examples drugs living organisms 4.1.1(m aspirin digoxin penicillin 
• Air water make potometer precautions 3.1.3(c measures rate
• Potato blight 4.1.1(a fungus-like protoctist hyphae penetrate host
• Bacterial meningitis 4.1.1(a infection meninges brain spread body
• Contamination  binding primer wrong dna sequence amplication error
• Divisions micrometer eyepiece stage graticule u mag factor 
• Aa solvent phase separated  organic moved tlc 2.1.2(s
• Asexual repro form cloning generates individuals mitosis produce
• Define vegetative propagation production plant clones genetically identical
• Form leaves swell food buds stems give ways
• Plant taking cutting removing planting short sections stem
• Success cuttings improved hormone rooting powder reduce number
• Give advantages taking cuttings seeds  -less time needed
• Give disadvantage taking cuttings seeds lack genetic variation
• Micropropagation process producing large numbers genetically identical offspring
• Why might micropropagation clone plant  if readily produce seeds
• Plant tissue culture medium hormones outline steps micropropagation
• Numbers plants give advantages micropropagation rapid production large
• Give disadvantages micropropagation produces monoculture single disease wipes
• Give 3 examples plants grown micropropogation potatoes sugar cane 
• Horticulture exploits natural plant cloning number formed e.g
• State normal blood glucose concentration 90mgcm-3
• Glucose blood foods increase levels diet starch carb-rich
• Glycogen found liver cells muscle cells 
• Glucose form decrease blood conc respiration energy higher
• Glucose insulin cells rate blood convert roles beta
• Insulin constant secretion broken enzymes liver
• Glucose glucagon cells liver blood roles alpha detect
• Blood glucose conc system maintaining constant regulating determines
• Cell glucose membrane insulin blood atp k+ channels
• Diabetes diabetic persons pancreas form sufficient amounts insulin
• Insulin blood glucose conc injected type diabetes caused
• Caused insulin glucose cells type diabetes controlled beta
• Glucose excessive symptoms diabetes blood levels  polydipsia thirst
• Insulin advantages obtaining gm bacteria animals forms pure
• Cells ways replace pancreatic stem totipotent extracted early
• Ways replace pancreatic cells transplants pancreas great demand
• Advantages animal cloning desirable genetic characteristics passed on 
• Animal cloning disadvantages cloned embryos fail develop produced
• Microorganisms biotechnology welfare issues easily genetically modified rapid
• Biotechnology exploitation biological processes industrial processes 
• Dough baking active yeast mixture added flour mixed
• Yes no
• Break starch beer brewing malting enzymes sugars barley
• Milk curds bacterial whey cheese-making pasterised kill natural
• Mixed forms yoghurt yoghurt-making milk powder added mixture
• Content advantages microorganisms food reproduce fast waste materials
• Form conditions disadvantages microoganisms food sterile costs involves
• Penicillin production mould requires high o2 levels difficult
• Insulin due form human production animals pancreas supply
• Organisms break natural gm bioremediation pollutants/contaminents soil/water naturally
• Animals examples natural cloning invertebrates regenerate entire fragments
• Twins examples natural cloning vertebrates monozygotic identical early
• Artificial cloning invertebrates fragment animal form
• Embryo artificial cells early split form ball divide
• Embryo scnt adult form animals artificial cloning clones
• Pathogenic health safety protocols culturing risks mutations make
• Microorganisms nutrient medium broth l agar s optimises
• Inoculation process bacteria added nutrient medium
• Broth inoculating bacteria make suspension grown mix sterile
• Inoculating agar loop lid wire sterilised holding close
• Phase rate growth reproduction cells death standard curve
• Pop temp high o2 low enzymes waste formed
• Set serial investigating factors affecting growth bacteria identical
• Ways growing microorganisms batch continuous fermentation 
• Products batch fermentation microorganisms growth inoculated medium occurs
• Continuous culture medium continually constant microorganisms inoculated sterile
• Methods operating bioreactor metabolites mixture part adjusted max
• Bioreactors factors controlled include temp low slow growth
• Messenger triggers camp membrane glucose action adrenaline model
• Heart rate centres receptors blood controlling sending impulses
• Chemoreceptors blood ph co2 detect increases heart rate
• Blood pressure impulses medulla heart decreases rate sends
• Hormones heart rate role controlling influenced e.g adrenaline
• Artery measuring heart rate recording number pulses wrist
• Response fight flight coordinated nervous hormonal systems running
• Adrenal release fight flight hypo ns hormones stress
• Physical responses fight flight what
• Process cascade action adrenaline effect stage number molecules
• Enzymes isolated organisms isolated/free efficient wasteful cheap produce
• Immobalised enzymes attached inert support system substrate passes
• Enzymes cheaper immobalised expensive easily advantages disadvantages reused
• Enzymes immobalised how are
• Immobalised penicillin glucose semi-synthetic enzymes biotechnology acyclase make
• Homeostasis body maintaining dynamic equilibrium small fluctuations narrow
• Effectors receptors role homeostasis detect external/internal environments work
• Control negative feedback common small dirrection detected sensory
• Change head cervix oxytocin positve feedback internal enviro
• Thermoregulation maintaining constant core body temperature maintain optimal
• Basis liver largest internal organ body diaphragm damaged
• Water convection currents air processes controlling organisms heating
• Ectotherms surroundings dont warm bodies living water thermoregulate
• Temperature responses sun bodies warm colours rate regulation
• Temperature receptors skin detect blood detecting endotherms peripheal
• Responses behavioral physiological inactivity weather endotherms ecotherms hibernation
• Skin surface blood cools increased insulating cooling endotherms
• Body skin warming surface cooling muscles endotherms responses
• Cold fat adaptations hot/cold climates hot high sa:v
• Responses core hypothalamus heat centre activated temp blood
• Excretion removal waste products metabolism body
• Waste excreted bile products breakdown liver nitrogenous main
• Hepatic liver blood hepatocytes bile portal vein oxygen
• Types summation overview  -spatial temporal
• Glucose glycogen blood sugar levels due liver functions; carbohydrate
• Aa hepatocytes convert nh3 urea toxic liver functions; deamination
• Liver e.g breakdown h2o2 hepatocytes ethanol functions; detoxification site
• Liver microscopes under
• Plant diseases ring rot 4.1.1(a bacterial gram positive
• Virus plant diseases tobacco mosaic 4.1.1(a caused damages
• Black leaves plant diseases sigotaka 4.1.1(a banana caused
• Animal diseases tubercolosis 4.1.1(a caused bacteria damages destroys
• Hiv strand susceptible rna dna animal diseases hiv/aids
• Mosquitos animal diseases malaria 4.1.1(a caused protoctista carried
• Animal diseases athletes foot 4.1.1(a fungal caused human
• Roles kidney osmoregulation excretion ph control blood
• Blood kidney renal arteriole similar anatomy vessels supplied
• Blood dense network renal medulla urine main areas
• Nephrons kidney made filtering units filter blood
• Tubule cortex loop bowmans glomerulus convoluted coiled medulla
• Blood basement membrane glomerulus make plasma lpp capsule
• Tubule reabsorbed active transport blood conc filtrate proximal
• Loop conc na+ cl fluid tissue descending medulla
• Blood na+ distal convoluted tubule water salt ph
• Collecting duct passes renal water main site conc/vol
• Blood fluid adh levels membrane water conc inorganic
• Water adh gained/lost formed/stored role gained drink respiration
• Urine sign detect disease pregnancy drugs water urea
• Antibodies form hcg monoclonal make pregnant women grown
• Test antibodies coloured pregnant line urine monoclonal window
• Anabolic steroids urine drugs mimic action testosterone stimulate
• Drug sample testing metabolites breakdown products filtered kidneys
• Blood kidney effects pressure failure urine due build
• Rate blood levels glomerular filtration kidney creatinine gfr
• Dialysis blood machine membranes conc urea haemodyalsis involves
• Dialysis fluid peritoneal inside body peritoneum natural membranes
• Kidney risk immune system antigens treating failure transplants
• Dialysis donor kidneys shortage comparing transplants readily requires
• Genome genetic material organism all
• Dna base repeated types regions introns pairs number
• Ge ethical dont pathogens due health/safety concerns potential
• Gm yield resistence +ve ve soya transfer insect
• Dna fragments membrane strands polymerase lots step temp
• Dna profiling forensic science sample blood/saliva/semen/hair/skin profiled compared
• Computational data biology bioinformatics biological e.g models development
• Dna species comparisons sequence mutation compared diseases gene
• Form proteins proteomics aa functional mrna study sequencing
• Biological genes synthetic biology techniques designing artificial pathways
• Dna sequencing fragments terminator bases capillary nucleotides stop
• Dna microorganisms organism purpose genetically manipulating gm/ge form
• Smooth muscle contract extra mucus prod
• Animals human gm pharming ethical issues swine form
• Allele gene therapy somatic functional cells pass offspring
• Immune response 4.1.1(f
• Histology kidney of
• Roles plant hormones of
• Seed gibberellins evidence role embryo food stores gib
• Apical auxins growth shoot root lateral grow cells
• Gibberellins affects length internodes regions leaves stem shorter
• Synergism antagonism hormones compliment eachother giving greater response
• Hormones diff effects plant concs investigating growth problems
• Gene desired plasmid cut dna restriction endonucleases specific
• Collagen describe structure molecule peptide bonds aa polypeptide
• Cells lining cheek
• Haemoglobin prosthetic collagen group haem describe ways structure
• Present structure animal cells plant centrioles
• Describe advantage staining specimens viewed microscope increases contrast
• Present identify features prokaryotic cell eukaryotes nucleus mito
• Suggest stage secretion protein requires energy exocytosis 
• Blood student red cells observe wanted microscope small
• Suggest information obtained dna analysis taxonomists finding evo
• Genes control humans suggest characteristics fruit fly drosophila
• Cellulose alpha beta bonds h2 differences structures starch
• Group biological molecules alcohol dehydrogenase belongs enzymes dont
• Ethanol wines deg active information fig explain alcohol
• Describe structure plasma cell surface membrane bilayer instrisic/extrinsic
• Cube student liver frozen carried investigation catalase procedure
• Cell signal explain surface membranes contribute process signalling
• State roles membranes inside cells 2.1.5(a compartmentalisation site
• Proteins vesicles copi copii transport materials golgi coated
• Describe routes water molecules cell surface membrane fit
• Types epithelial tissue found lungs airways ciliatd epithilium
• Air improve gaseous exchange alveoli refreshed ventilation movement
• Calculate rate peaks breathing minute trace oxygen consumption
• Table/graph describing trends state values evidence
• Held open suggest expel air lungs trachea cartillage
• Blood contraction suggest explain effect supraventricular tachycardia flow
• Foramen left ovale blood fetus hole septum atria
• Describe components tobacco smoke affect cardiovascular system smokers
• Sickle cell haemoglobin oxygen treatment adults fetal anaemia
• Describe guard cells surrounding leaf pores adapted role
• Part leaf water lost cuticle
• Assimilate aa name another
• Xylem vessel walls water pass adjacent bordered pits
• Water extra xerophytic features explain reduces loss vapour
• Fever accompanied sweating explain effect body suggest shivering
• Hepatic vein sinusoid b bile duct c portal
• Cytoplasm b neurone membrane c nucleus
• Suggest explain cell continues secrete insulin continued secretion
• Describe similarities action plant animal hormones cell signalling
• Plants explain form natural reproductive clones animals meristems
• Blood glucose patient’s result fasting test concentration normal
• State pancreatic cell insulin molecules synthesised rer
• Year type diabetes old why
• Bar represent error sd what
• Peritoneum differ function artificial membrane dialysis machine haemodialysis
• Dialysis water wp fluid peritoneal dextrose solution remove
• Desert kangaroo conditions henle mammals longer water rat
• Loop water explain role henle production urine ascending
• Light describe ways structure grana adapted function pigments
• Product light-dependent reaction light-independent o2
• Raw material chloroplast fat droplets act reserve suggest
• Oxygen measuring produced discuss carbon dioxide uptake give
• Li conc co2 of
• Yield atp aerobic respiration fewer molecules theoretical maximum
• Glucose anaerobic respiration produces atp explain incomplete breakdown
• Low high respiration rate storing ripening fruit
• Parasites blood live mammals suggest carries oxygen adapted
• Anaerobic respiration pathway cells yeast pyruvate converted lactate
• Anaerobic respiration yeast cells released pyruvate converted ethanal
• Lactate hepatocytes cells o2 suggest converted pyruvate liver
• State precisely liver cell excess reduced nad re-oxidised
• Light/sem/tem micro image scientific drawings lscm image  2.1.1(a)and(d
• Sample prep 2.1.1(b
• Dna sample break add cell extracting 2.1.3(d grind
• Competitive examples non-competitive inhibition 2.1.4(f statins inhibit enzymes
• Diffusion specialised animal tissues 2.1.6(h squamous epithilium present
• Specialised plant tissues 2.1.6(i epidermis cover surface waxy
• Investigate effects diff factors enzymes 2.1.4(d catalase readily
• Rate diffusion sa of and
• Diffusion rates investigating factors affecting 2.1.5(d small particles
• Dissection bony fish 3.1.1(g of
• Histology exchange surfaces 3.1.1(h of
• Dissecting heart 3.1.2(e
• Cardiac output 3.1.2(e heart rate stroke volume
• Vascular structure function system roots stems leaves herbaceous
• Investigating stomatal numbers
• Micro images skeletal/cardiac/involuntary muscle of
• Type diabetes graphs 1 on
• Seperating pigments
• O2 photorespiration competitively inhibits rubisco forms phosphoglycolate gp
• Limiting factor graphs
• Investigating factors affecting respiration respirometer koh absorbs co2
• Light abscission zone cells layer abiotic sensitive form
• Freezing plant responses abiotic stress  preventing dec temp
• Abiotic cells release aba plant responses stress  stomatal
• Plant responses herbivory  physical defences e.g thorns spikes
• Insects plant responses herbivory  chemical defences tannins phenol
• Genome large accuracy smaller fragments
• Vocs chemical trees leaves form plant made e.g
• Plant responses herbivory  folding touch move slowly leaves
• Chlorosis body mass chlorophyll environmental genetic factors examples
• Alleles inherited passed dominant expressed present homo genotype/phenotype
• Variation types of
• Homo state genetic hetero phenotype cross monogenic rules
• Dominant alleles red gene flower white homo represented
• I^a i^b multiple alleles results prod i^o gene
• X allele sex sex-linked chromo chromosomes females males
• Response types tropisms  phototropisms unliateral light geotropism gravity
• Light auxins side grow unlit unilateral phototropisms all-round
• Geotropisms geotrophic grow shoots negatively light roots positively
• Ethene ripening rate time commercial plant hormones  control
• Rooting roots commercial plant hormones  hormone powders micropropagation
• Weeds main narrow-leaved broad-leaved plants commercial hormones  hormonal
• Fruit plant hormones commercial  other auxins form seedless
• Conservation species tend discovered areas humans dont live
• Rio conventions sustainable ecosystems sharing genetic resources 
• Antibiotics insecticides and
• Distrupts food chains dec soil quality
• Words importance conservation social/economic/ecological aswell factors e.g affecting
• Required proteins/nucleic acids  for
• Technology accurate evidence better provides
• Repro difficult wild maintain gene pool ex-situ protects
• Dont control conditions takes space  viable grow long
• Species constantly evolving/extinct difficult distinguish
• Habitat dominated species greater impact abiotic stresses
• Lack genetic diversity interbreeding of
• Comparative biochemistry phylogeny anatomy and
• Sct glt affected pass offspring genetic disease comparing
• Competition barnacles/musscels algae from for
• Base pairs end codons dont code aa
• Ecology
• E,g,b,d,f,h,c,f
• Unlike forrest s chlorophyll breaks d bog minerals
• D
• C
• C
• D
• C
• 0.01-0.018
• Insoluble unreactive flexible
• Units ethanol x-axis incorrect scale title
• Removing co2 prevents photo
• Liver pancreatic skeletal
• D
• B
• B
• Measure diff volume peaks minuite 30s b
• I size stated ii not
• I 1.7mm ii 80/1.8
• Air spaces give buoyency  supported surrounding water
• Nuclear proteins hidden nucleus in
• Seed dispersal
• = 480-254/254 100 88.98 88.98/29
• Lamella
• Constant carry temp concs substances remove amount sample
• A
• A
• D
• E h,e f,g,h
• Heartbeat anomalous  cycles only 1
• M high ratio h:o as
• Called plasmodium
• B
• Z membrane is
• W sucrose solution opp situation water
• Mito o2 bound haemoglobin no
• Respiring tissue high pco2 takes o2
• Enzymes travel long distances
• C
• Methyline blue
• Ribosome
• Peer-review replicating studies and
• End cells xylem phloem s made joining d
• Removal operculum cut open exoskeleton observe structures
• Rank i taste sweet test samples benedicts order
• C
• A
• D
• B
• Sa:v rate o2 absorption inc
• Glycerol
• Q phloem s xylem
• Microscope eyepiece graticule count hair unit area
• C,d,b,a b d,a,b,c,e a
• Virus plasmid
• Ii cells dead may be
• Ii beetroot samples temp pieces sa:v
• Place meristematic tiisue found c shoot tips
• High habitat ice property act buffer chemical reactions
• Roles cholesterol regulate fluidity make skin waterproof
• Ii lipids proteins and
• Lots saturated fat/fatty acids ldl
• Branched differences glycogen cellulose alpha beta glyco straight
• Aa sequence peptide bonds proteins qs helix
• Daughter cell set dna genetically identical
• Tips shoots apex roots of
• Animals plants cleavage furrow centrioles
• Metabolites formed microorganism substances e.g primary secondary desired
• Serial dilutions
• Leaf plants gene bacterial expose cells genetically engineering
• Evidence phototropisms for
• N formula number individual organisms
• Plant diseases animal bacteria virus protoctista fungi overview
• Pathogens non-specific animal defences overview keeping skin mucuous
• Immunity specific immune responses overview antibodies  cell-mediated humoral
• Natural passive active artificial forms immunity overview breast
• Drug designs future overview pharmacognetics synthetic biology
• Neurones types structure structure  cell body dendrons axons
• Sensory receptors overview mechanoreceptor chemoreceptor  thermoreceptor photoreceptor
• Synaptic neurone components synapse overview  cleft presynaptic postsynapyic
• Types neurotransmitters overview excitatory inhibitory
• Reflex blinking reflex  knee-jerk overview spinal cranial
• Types muscle overview skeletal cardiac involuntary
• Endocrne glands overview pituitary  pineal thyroid thymus adrenal
• Hormones adrenal cortex overview glucocorticoids cortisol corticosterone mineratocorticoids
• Functions liver carbohydrate metabolism deamination xs aa detoxification
• Response abiotic stresses herbivory overview leaf loss deciduous
• Commercial plant hormones control ripening rooting powder hormonal
• Factors affecting photosynthesis  li temperature co2
• Aerobic respiraton overview glycolysis link reaction krebs cycle
• Pyruvate lactate ferm anaerobic respiration overview acts h2
• Artficial animal cloning overview scnt twinning
• Yeast making bacteria microrganisms biotech baking brewing yoghurt
• Availability abiotic factors overview light temperature water o2
• Primary succesion overview pioneer intermediate climax
• Contraction muscles summary fibre appearance  control arrangement speed
• Mutation aa codon gene sequence affects frame protein
• Mutations e.g effects phenotype proteins due codon prevent
• Base dna mutagens mutations physical biological agents sequence
• Sieve plates nucleus and
• Chromosome section breaks mutations joins gene single gene/sections
• Dihybrid inheritance diff seeds hetero crosses genes e.g
• Ratio inherited expected diff phenotypes dihybrid cross differ
• Housekeeping tissue-specific genes code enzymes protein-based hormones required
• Genes regulation needed expressed prevents wasting vital resources
• Modified translation gene regulated transcriptional turned on/off post-transcriptional
• Dna wound histones addition tightly makes cell chromatin
• Lactose glucose transcription operon genes protein binds enzymes
• Mrna rna pre-mrna mature added post-transcriptional/pre-translational control processing
• Mrna bind translation translational control stop degrade inhibitory
• E.g protein post-translational add non-protein group lipoprotein/glycoprotein specific
• Dna
• Genes bv autosomal linkage crossing recombinant unexpected ratio
• Observed phenotypes offspring chi-squared expected sig diff state
• Gene epistatic epistasis hypostatic protein dominant codes pigment
• Ii s unbranched  d amylose forms helix
• Correct enzyme break agarose no
• 100nm 1nm vs
• Ribosomes mito and
• Differentiation
• B dna
• Speciation
• Diff sample catalase find single source
• Blue/black
• Dont cheap quick carry expose bacteria ineffective antibiotic
• Asthma emphysema
• Ii
• Health volunteer steralise mouthpiece of
• Bronchioles b alveoli a
• Tissue fluid plasma leaves surrounding larger molecules pass
• Prevent damaging blood vessels caps thin layers 
• End cell walls  bordered pits
• Bubbles present blockage xylem restore column water
• Humidity air movement  and
• Meeds co2 lost cuticle to
• D,a,b
• Diff reacts lack genetic diversity organisms
• Microscopes havent resolved lack em small
• Frequency
• Ii f iii d a
• Ii channel receptor diff
• Ii insulation affects saltatory conduction
• Intensity
• Similarity involved homeostasis is both
• E convoluted tubule f bowmans capsule
• P cortex q ureter
• +ve ii charge repels ions  small passage ions
• I radius capillary tube ii h2co3 bubbles co2
• Present air spaces leaf leaves plant o2
• Co2 iii photo dissolves water
• 1 none 2/3
• Ethanal
• Iv release nad glycolysis continue atp formed
• Make vol contents beads o2 b
• I selective breeding ii gene mutation
• Salting lack water due low wp cell cook
• Crossing independent assortment happen meiosis prophase ia metaphase
• I electrophoresis ii rarely forms seeds iii vegetative
• A
• B
• B
• A
• C
• B
• Atp
• Sucrose soluble sap inactive lost transportation
• Problems blood sugar regulation cardiovascular
• E lactic acid liver blood
• C
• B
• B
• C
• D
• D
• Ii dominant epistasis iii codes repressor protein binds
• Random sampling chance variation small samples  repeat find
• Large pass phospholipids  too to
• High young lactose diet milk lac y transcribed
•  so c 2 8
• Tlc electro seperates interactions stationary phase wheras electropheresis
• Antibiotic resistence  inc in
• A
• Hair erector muscles contract flight make animal larger
• Bonds energy soluble forms h2 water
• Feature refers environment genetics cause
• Length end middle 20/2 =
• Affects rf value
• D
• D
• C ribosomes
• D
• B
• C2
• Polypeptide protein not
• C2
• C
• C2
• 30-35c
• Triglycerides phospholipids chloresterol soluble water
• C
• A
• C
• A
• A
• Matrix
• A
• B
• D
• Lobed nucleus
• A
• Write title large space  take
• C4
• B
• C
• B
• B
• B
• Dividing
• Anaphase
• Ii
• Mito ribosomes and
• Apoplast
• D
• C12
• C7

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