OCR A Biology

This OCR A Biology flashcard deck covers a range of advanced biology topics including ecological succession and adaptations of pioneer species, immunological memory via B cells, metabolic activities dependent on energy, photosynthesis mechanisms (cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation), the Calvin cycle, cellular respiration steps (glycolysis, link reaction, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, oxidative phosphorylation), and fermentation (lactic and alcoholic). It also addresses alternative respiratory substrates, fundamental ecological concepts such as ecosystems, abiotic and biotic factors, food chains/webs, biomass, trophic efficiency, and agriculture. Additionally, key biogeochemical cycles like the nitrogen cycle (fixation, ammonification, nitrification, denitrification) and the carbon cycle are explained, linking them to environmental issues including global warming and CO2 absorption by oceans.

Esta baraja de tarjetas OCR A Biología cubre diversos temas centrales de biología a nivel avanzado, incluyendo sucesión ecológica y adaptaciones de especies pioneras, memoria inmunológica (células B), actividades metabólicas y dependencia energética, mecanismos de fotosíntesis (fotofosforilación cíclica y no cíclica), ciclo de Calvin, respiración celular (glucólisis, reacción enlace, ciclo de Krebs, cadena de transporte de electrones, fosforilación oxidativa) y fermentación (láctica y alcohólica), así como aspectos sobre sustancias respiratorias diferentes a la glucosa. Además, incluye conceptos ecológicos fundamentales como ecosistemas, factores abióticos y bióticos, cadenas y redes tróficas, biomasa, eficiencia trófica y agricultura. También presenta ciclos biogeoquímicos clave como el ciclo del nitrógeno (fijación, amonificación, nitrificación y desnitrificación) y el ciclo del carbono, relacionándolos con procesos medioambientales como el calentamiento global y la absorción de CO2 por océanos.

Learn using these flashcards. Click a card to start.

• 083426df68c44b26b1318d883ae7afb3-ao-2
• 083426df68c44b26b1318d883ae7afb3-ao-4
• 083426df68c44b26b1318d883ae7afb3-ao-6
• 083426df68c44b26b1318d883ae7afb3-ao-5
• 083426df68c44b26b1318d883ae7afb3-ao-1
• 083426df68c44b26b1318d883ae7afb3-ao-3
• C
• Succession ss occurs seral stages main ss's pioneer
• B memory cells 4.1.1(f provide immunological remembers specific
• Pyramid energy represents amount biomass/energy converted biomass
• Insoluble unreactive flexible
• Removing co2 prevents photo
• Inc/dec pop sizes immigration/birth indivuals emigration/death decreases
• Glands exocrine secrete hormones ducts organs
• Adaptations pioneer species produce lots seed/spores blown wind
• D
• Photo resp biomass/interelation forms biomass respiro breaks atp
• Electrons excited e chemiosis pigments absorb suns energy
• Om heterotrophic/autotrophic hetero gains ingestion auto produces photo
• Light harvesting system reaction centres collective collectively photosystem
• E's ps1  cyclic photo cyclic photophosphorylation leaving release
• Give disadvantage taking cuttings seeds lack genetic variation
• Carbon calvin cycle unstable 3-carbon molecules co2 diffuses
• Fixation cc co2 fixed incorperated organic molecules
• Limiting factors  law law reactant shortest supply
• Photo limiting factors explained temp  all reactions cc
• Glycolysis stage occurs cytoplasm anaerobic dont require o2
• Primary occurs sand succession when;  volcanoes erupt depositing
• Matrix structure mito mitochondrial dna enzymes needed kc
• Form acetyl oxidative reaction aerobic h2 atoms co2
• Nad written ways writing nadh reduced number charged
• E energy form h2 h+ atp o2 oxidative
• Aerobic molecules o2 anaerobic efficient forms atp glucose
• Fermentation o2 e stops nad/fad important absence act
• Pyruvate ethanal nad continues ethanol alcoholic fermentation irreversible
• Atp acetyl respiratory substances form fatty glycerol coa
• Soil abiotic factors diff types affect organisms chances
• Food webs/chains energy trophic consumer show transfer biomass
• Biomass tl biomass/pyramid mass living material present organism
• Biomass consumers convert food tissue energy lost dont
• Tls producer pc energy agriculture max animal feed
• Bacteria n2 plants nh3 mutualistic gain nitrogen-fixing relationships
• Compounds  ammonification ammonification decomposers convert n2 dead organisms
• Photoreceptors  photoreceptors detect light e.g cone cells eyes
• Co2 c atm forms organic passed released dead
• Co2 global warming atm seas/oceans  inc leading temp
• Excitatory nt depolarisation postsynoptic membrane threshold met ap
• Animal succession consumers plant suitable species undergo similar
• Human activities climax succession effect halt natural flow
• Factors expo limiting carrying density independent growth max
• Comp factor interspecific species resource pops types outcompeting/cep
• Predator pop stage prey survival/repro dec predation  pops
• B
• Importance organisms conservation economic resources required survival income
• Preservation sensitive protection areas bannning/restricting human influence preserves
• Inhibitory nt hyperpolarisation postsynoptic membrane preventing initiation ap
• Fish fishing caught overfishing dec pops dont regenerate
• Crop techniques improve land damage terrai region sustainability
• Whalers access galapogas islands theyre dealt released domestic
• Effects human activities antartica preventing global warming breaks
• Respond animals plants responses animals/plants stimuli internal/external enviros
• Motor neurone transmits impulses sensory/relay effector muscles/glands long
• Fungi kingdom 4.2.2(c e.g yeast mould uni/multicellular n/mbo
• Initial 1st wave depolarisation stimuli region depolarising triggers
•  temp transmission faster effect temp diffusion ions high
• Ns  ans split outcome activity e.g heart dec
• Pituitary stores hormones section pitiuitary glands releases regulate
• Rbc cells nucleus/stem nucleus replicate haematopoietic stem maintain
• Neurone na+ pacinian ending layers membrane channels background
• Ap postsynoptic broken triggerred neurone nt triggers released
• Acetylcholine ap triggered hydrolysed actelycholinesterase form choline ethanoic
• Summation nt trigger ap postsynoptic neurone
• Unmyelinated depolarisation nodes protein channels myelinated occurs myelin
• Repolarisation efficiency myelinated efficient requires atp na+ pump
• Somatic ns system concious control voluntarily input sense
• Neurones brain advantage central control centre communicate quicker
• Info cerebellum balance controls unconscious functions e.g posture
• Synapse nt junction neurones effector signal transmitted neurotransmitters
• Synoptic cleft gap axon neurone dendrites
• Presynoptic neurone impulse arrives along
• Postsynoptic neurone recieves neurotransmitters that
• Receptor neurotransmitter  neurotransmiter specific molecules binding nt postsynoptic
• Stimuli  stimuli change enviro is
• Cell body nucleus surrounded cyto er/mito produce neurotransmitters
• Axons transmit electrical impulses cell body cylindrical cyto
• Pathway receptor--sensory--relay--motor--effector
• Myelin schwann cells axons neurones sheeth speed covered
• Action voltage pot potential occurs membrane shape due
• Mechanoreceptors respond pressure/movement e.g pacinian corpuscle  skin detecting
• Chemoreceptors respond chemicals e.g olfactoryreceptor detects smell
• Continuous variation 4.2.2(f characteristics takie range controlled polygenes
• Domain organisms system groups 4.2.2(c current classification systrem
• Sum x number sd 4.2.2(f root x)^2 n-1
• Organisms fossil record rocks complex ads 4.2.2(e evidence
• Fossil record disads 4.2.2(e incomplete organisms soft bodied
• Anatomical adaptations 4.2.2(g body coverings hair feathers shells
• Variation alleles diff genetic parents 4.2.2(f include genes
• Enviro variation 4.2.2(f plants affected animals due mobility 
• Variation inter/ra 4.2.2(f differences characteristics species interspecific diff
• Species kingdom groups 4.2.2(a  kingdoms are biggest/broadest smallest specific
• Prokaryotae kingdom 4.2.2(c unicellular nucleus/membrane bound organelle small
• Protoctista kingdom 4.2.2(c proroctista unicellular eukaryotes nucleus/memrane bound
• Captive animals organisms suitable release 4.2.1(e diseases havent
• Situ natural habitat in/ex 4.2.1(h
• Habitat bio species 4.2.1(a number found area supports
• Species bio diff living meadow 4.2.1(a components richness
• Aesthetic reasons enviro maintain bio 4.2.1(g presence diff
• Conditions organisms abiotic factors sensors non-living habitat direct
• Areas low bio species 4.2.1(a succesful stressful enviro
• B effector cells 4.1.1(f divide form plasma clones
• Sampling animals insects tree living organisms 4.2.1(b pooter
• Quadrat density 1m estimate grids frame 4.2.1(b individual
• Host virus directly attacks 4.1.1(a viral gm cell
• Protoctista fungi cells digest directly attacks 4.1.1(a break
• Scientists design drugs models molecules 4.1.1(m complex computer
• Synthetic biology 4.1.1(m bioogy genetic engineering pops bacteria
• T killer cells 4.1.1(f destroy pathogen antigen perforin
• T regulator cells 4.1.1(f supress immune system control/regulate
• Disease autoimmune 4.1.1(k immune system attcks healthy body
• Transmission dieses animals humans reduced increased poor 4.1.1(b
• Disease factors affecting transmission plants 4.1.1(b crops susceptible
• Viruses gm host 4.1.1(a parasitic non-living agents basic
• Protoctista 4.1.1(a group eukaryotic cells protistsa disease parasitic
• Blood smear lymphocytes 4.1.1(e made spreading single drop
• Factors affecting predator prey pops affect sizes e.g
• Respond rapidly pathogen attack molecules cell plants 4.1.1(c
• Active natural immunity memmory cells 4.1.1(j t/b produced
• Baby natural passive immunity antibodies makes 4.1.1(j born
• Artificial passive immunity 4.1.1(j antibodies formed individual extracted
• Immunity disease vaccine prevents spreads rapidly number pan/epidemics
• Bond energy amount involved is
• Artificial cloning invertebrates fragment animal form
• Antibiotic mrsa c.difficile resistent bacteria examples 4.1.1(n body
•  regeneration tp molecules regenerated rubp energy supplied atp
• Reduction molecules reduced cc gp tp nadp atp
• Organic molecules smaller inorganic photo/respiration breaking/forming photo forms
• Light forming organic atp energy bonds molecules build
• Break bonds energy respiro om organic molecule broken
• Pigments absorb specific wavelengths light reflect
• Primary pigment chlorophyll absorbs red/blue light reflects green
• Diff shades/colours leaves due combo pigments
• Light independent occurs stroma raw mat co2 deprndent
• Li light limiting factors photo intensity energy source
• Water limiting photo stoma co2 factor closes dry
• Respiration coenzymes reactions multi step pathway enzyme controlled
•  obligate anaerobes  anaerobes survive o2 presence e.g prokaryotes
• Faculative anaerobes o2 respire aerobically presence anaerobically absence
• Respiro occurs prokaryotes cell membrances mito
• Outer membrane structure mito creates cellular compartment ideal
• Membrane structure mito atp synthase
• Intermembrane spaces structure mito  small builds steep conc
• Plant h2o availability abiotic factors  availability  low leads
• Co2 levels fluctuate photo occurs atm day presence
• Change succession process ecosystems time e.g organisms moving
• Primary succession occurs newly formed land exposed areas
• Nitrification oxidation reaction well-aerated soils nitrifying bacteria oxidise
• Prod generation primary/secondary biomass producers primary consumer secondary
• Ecological effiency biomass/energy transfer/biomass/energy transfer
• Ecotourism tourism directed natural enviro supports conservation efforts
• Active conservation/protection programs masai mara  ensure balance locals
• Dec interspecific squireels food chances pop red/grey grey
• Dec terrai deforestation continues region and   if left
• Techniques conservation maintaing bio human actions manages ecosystems
• Substrate level phosphorylation  phosphorylation forming atp
•  predation comp factor biotic form interspecific
• Reflex arc describing situation identify specific receptor stimulus
• Spinal cord column nervous tissue running back protected
• B
• Reflex leg knee-jerk hammer/diagnoses tap hammer extends relaxes
• Reflex knee-jerk maintains posture balance 
• Reflex blinking type in/voluntary cranial involves brain sc
• Neurone cranial blinking reflex process cornea irritated foreign
• Skeletal common movement e.g biceps triceps
• Muscle involuntary walls smooth found hollow organs e.g
• Hormones main types formed adrenal cortex androgens release
• Parallel protein filaments long made myofibrils cylindrical organelles
• Fibres features skeletal muscle  individual muscle streaks connective
• Myosin filaments globular heads whihc binding sites atp
• Hb saturation partial pressure o2 3.1.2(j
• Fibres motor supply supplied neurone unit stronger force
• Depolarisation spread sarcolemma t-tubules spr runs deep muscle
• Atp periods excercise short creatine store po4 ways
• Pressure time heart 3.1.2(e vs
• Translocation 3.1.3(f
• Common cations 2.1.2(p uses of
• Endocrine system made glands specialised secrete hormones directly
• Examples endocrine glands thyroid forms thyroxine controls metabolic
• Converts examples endocrine glands pancreas forms insulin glucose
• Forms examples endocrine glands ovary oestrogen controls ovulation 
• Non-steroid hormones hydrophillic repelled membrane bind receptors triggers
• Adrenal region gland forms location structure found top
• Hormones production adrenal cortex controlled produced pituitary glands
• Hormones main types produced adrenal cortex mineratocorticoids e.g
• Digestive exocrine glandular tissue enzymes forms enzymes/pancreatic juice
• Exocrine glands  tissue small regions endocrine islets langerhans
• Cells alpha produce/secrete iol glucagon beta insulin abundant
• Potato blight 4.1.1(a fungus-like protoctist hyphae penetrate host
• Contamination  binding primer wrong dna sequence amplication error
• Differential staining 2.1.1(c distinguish cellular components cell types 
• Res light electron images red/mag comparison 2.1.1(f typically
• I 1.7mm ii 80/1.8
• Glucose stored amylopectin/glycogen suited storage plants roles 2.1.2(f)and(g
• Reagent strips 2.1.2(q test presence rs finds exact
• Biosensors 2.1.2(r biological components determine presence conc molecules 
• Catalysing includes enzymes intra/extra cellular reactions 2.1.4(b intra
• Site roles membrane 2.1.5(a partially permeable barrier chemical
• Asexual mitosis repro 2.1.6(c)and(e occurs animals fungi plants
• Xylem make cut colored observing vessels 3.1.3(b transverse
• Asexual repro form cloning generates individuals mitosis produce
• Define vegetative propagation production plant clones genetically identical
• Plant taking cutting removing planting short sections stem
• Success cuttings improved hormone rooting powder reduce number
• Give advantages taking cuttings seeds  -less time needed
• Numbers plants give advantages micropropagation rapid production large
• Give disadvantages micropropagation produces monoculture single disease wipes
• Give 3 examples plants grown micropropogation potatoes sugar cane 
• Horticulture exploits natural plant cloning number formed e.g
• State normal blood glucose concentration 90mgcm-3
• Glycogen found liver cells muscle cells 
• Insulin constant secretion broken enzymes liver
• Blood glucose conc system maintaining constant regulating determines
• Diabetes diabetic persons pancreas form sufficient amounts insulin
• Insulin blood glucose conc injected type diabetes caused
• Caused insulin glucose cells type diabetes controlled beta
• Glucose excessive symptoms diabetes blood levels  polydipsia thirst
• Plant diseases ring rot 4.1.1(a bacterial gram positive
• Ways replace pancreatic cells transplants pancreas great demand
• Advantages animal cloning desirable genetic characteristics passed on 
• Microorganisms biotechnology welfare issues easily genetically modified rapid
• Biotechnology exploitation biological processes industrial processes 
• Yes no
• Mixed forms yoghurt yoghurt-making milk powder added mixture
• Content advantages microorganisms food reproduce fast waste materials
• Penicillin production mould requires high o2 levels difficult
• Insulin due form human production animals pancreas supply
• Animals examples natural cloning invertebrates regenerate entire fragments
• Twins examples natural cloning vertebrates monozygotic identical early
• Embryo scnt adult form animals artificial cloning clones
• Pathogenic health safety protocols culturing risks mutations make
• Inoculation process bacteria added nutrient medium
• Phase rate growth reproduction cells death standard curve
• Pop temp high o2 low enzymes waste formed
• Set serial investigating factors affecting growth bacteria identical
• Ways growing microorganisms batch continuous fermentation 
• Methods operating bioreactor metabolites mixture part adjusted max
• Bioreactors factors controlled include temp low slow growth
• Air spaces give buoyency  supported surrounding water
• Heart rate centres receptors blood controlling sending impulses
• Hormones heart rate role controlling influenced e.g adrenaline
• Artery measuring heart rate recording number pulses wrist
• Response fight flight coordinated nervous hormonal systems running
• Physical responses fight flight what
• Process cascade action adrenaline effect stage number molecules
• Enzymes isolated organisms isolated/free efficient wasteful cheap produce
• Enzymes immobalised how are
• Immobalised penicillin glucose semi-synthetic enzymes biotechnology acyclase make
• Homeostasis body maintaining dynamic equilibrium small fluctuations narrow
• Effectors receptors role homeostasis detect external/internal environments work
• Black leaves plant diseases sigotaka 4.1.1(a banana caused
• Change head cervix oxytocin positve feedback internal enviro
• Thermoregulation maintaining constant core body temperature maintain optimal
• Ectotherms surroundings dont warm bodies living water thermoregulate
• Temperature receptors skin detect blood detecting endotherms peripheal
• Skin surface blood cools increased insulating cooling endotherms
• Cold fat adaptations hot/cold climates hot high sa:v
• Excretion removal waste products metabolism body
• Waste excreted bile products breakdown liver nitrogenous main
• Types summation overview  -spatial temporal
• Liver e.g breakdown h2o2 hepatocytes ethanol functions; detoxification site
• Liver microscopes under
• Mosquitos animal diseases malaria 4.1.1(a caused protoctista carried
• Animal diseases athletes foot 4.1.1(a fungal caused human
• Roles kidney osmoregulation excretion ph control blood
• Blood dense network renal medulla urine main areas
• Nephrons kidney made filtering units filter blood
• Collecting duct passes renal water main site conc/vol
• Water adh gained/lost formed/stored role gained drink respiration
• Urine sign detect disease pregnancy drugs water urea
• Genome genetic material organism all
• Ge ethical dont pathogens due health/safety concerns potential
• Test antibodies coloured pregnant line urine monoclonal window
• Blood basement membrane glomerulus make plasma lpp capsule
• Tubule reabsorbed active transport blood conc filtrate proximal
• Rate blood levels glomerular filtration kidney creatinine gfr
• Dialysis fluid peritoneal inside body peritoneum natural membranes
• Dialysis donor kidneys shortage comparing transplants readily requires
• Dna profiling forensic science sample blood/saliva/semen/hair/skin profiled compared
• Dna species comparisons sequence mutation compared diseases gene
• Smooth muscle contract extra mucus prod
• Biological genes synthetic biology techniques designing artificial pathways
• Dna sequencing fragments terminator bases capillary nucleotides stop
• Dna microorganisms organism purpose genetically manipulating gm/ge form
• Allele gene therapy somatic functional cells pass offspring
• Immune response 4.1.1(f
• Gibberellins affects length internodes regions leaves stem shorter
• Synergism antagonism hormones compliment eachother giving greater response
• Hormones diff effects plant concs investigating growth problems
• Gene desired plasmid cut dna restriction endonucleases specific
• Collagen describe structure molecule peptide bonds aa polypeptide
• Present structure animal cells plant centrioles
• Suggest stage secretion protein requires energy exocytosis 
• Suggest information obtained dna analysis taxonomists finding evo
• Cellulose alpha beta bonds h2 differences structures starch
• Group biological molecules alcohol dehydrogenase belongs enzymes dont
• Describe structure plasma cell surface membrane bilayer instrisic/extrinsic
• Cell signal explain surface membranes contribute process signalling
• State roles membranes inside cells 2.1.5(a compartmentalisation site
• Proteins vesicles copi copii transport materials golgi coated
• Describe routes water molecules cell surface membrane fit
• Types epithelial tissue found lungs airways ciliatd epithilium
• Table/graph describing trends state values evidence
• Describe components tobacco smoke affect cardiovascular system smokers
• Describe guard cells surrounding leaf pores adapted role
• Part leaf water lost cuticle
• Assimilate aa name another
• Hepatic vein sinusoid b bile duct c portal
• Cytoplasm b neurone membrane c nucleus
• Ecology
• Describe similarities action plant animal hormones cell signalling
• State pancreatic cell insulin molecules synthesised rer
• Year type diabetes old why
• Bar represent error sd what
• Peritoneum differ function artificial membrane dialysis machine haemodialysis
• Light describe ways structure grana adapted function pigments
• Product light-dependent reaction light-independent o2
• Li conc co2 of
• Yield atp aerobic respiration fewer molecules theoretical maximum
• Low high respiration rate storing ripening fruit
• Parasites blood live mammals suggest carries oxygen adapted
• Anaerobic respiration yeast cells released pyruvate converted ethanal
• Lactate hepatocytes cells o2 suggest converted pyruvate liver
• State precisely liver cell excess reduced nad re-oxidised
• D
• Sample prep 2.1.1(b
• Competitive examples non-competitive inhibition 2.1.4(f statins inhibit enzymes
• Genome large accuracy smaller fragments
• Rate diffusion sa of and
• Dissection bony fish 3.1.1(g of
• Histology exchange surfaces 3.1.1(h of
• Cardiac output 3.1.2(e heart rate stroke volume
• Investigating stomatal numbers
• Type diabetes graphs 1 on
• Seperating pigments
• Limiting factor graphs
• Freezing plant responses abiotic stress  preventing dec temp
• C
• Abiotic cells release aba plant responses stress  stomatal
• Plant responses herbivory  physical defences e.g thorns spikes
• Plant responses herbivory  folding touch move slowly leaves
• Variation types of
• Dominant alleles red gene flower white homo represented
• I^a i^b multiple alleles results prod i^o gene
• Response types tropisms  phototropisms unliateral light geotropism gravity
• C
• D
• Geotropisms geotrophic grow shoots negatively light roots positively
• Rooting roots commercial plant hormones  hormone powders micropropagation
• Fruit plant hormones commercial  other auxins form seedless
• Conservation species tend discovered areas humans dont live
• Rio conventions sustainable ecosystems sharing genetic resources 
• Antibiotics insecticides and
• Distrupts food chains dec soil quality
• Required proteins/nucleic acids  for
• Technology accurate evidence better provides
• Dont control conditions takes space  viable grow long
• Habitat dominated species greater impact abiotic stresses
• Lack genetic diversity interbreeding of
• Base pairs end codons dont code aa
• Nuclear proteins hidden nucleus in
• Lamella
• A
• A
• D
• E h,e f,g,h
• M high ratio h:o as
• B
• Z membrane is
• Mito o2 bound haemoglobin no
• Enzymes travel long distances
• C
• Ribosome
• Removal operculum cut open exoskeleton observe structures
• Rank i taste sweet test samples benedicts order
• C
• D
• Glycerol
• Q phloem s xylem
• Microscope eyepiece graticule count hair unit area
• Virus plasmid
• Ii cells dead may be
• Place meristematic tiisue found c shoot tips
• Roles cholesterol regulate fluidity make skin waterproof
• Ii lipids proteins and
• Aa sequence peptide bonds proteins qs helix
• Daughter cell set dna genetically identical
• Tips shoots apex roots of
• Serial dilutions
• Leaf plants gene bacterial expose cells genetically engineering
• Evidence phototropisms for
• Pathogens non-specific animal defences overview keeping skin mucuous
• Immunity specific immune responses overview antibodies  cell-mediated humoral
• Drug designs future overview pharmacognetics synthetic biology
• Neurones types structure structure  cell body dendrons axons
• Sensory receptors overview mechanoreceptor chemoreceptor  thermoreceptor photoreceptor
• Types neurotransmitters overview excitatory inhibitory
• Hormones adrenal cortex overview glucocorticoids cortisol corticosterone mineratocorticoids
• Functions liver carbohydrate metabolism deamination xs aa detoxification
• Commercial plant hormones control ripening rooting powder hormonal
• Factors affecting photosynthesis  li temperature co2
• Artficial animal cloning overview scnt twinning
• Yeast making bacteria microrganisms biotech baking brewing yoghurt
• Primary succesion overview pioneer intermediate climax
• Mutations e.g effects phenotype proteins due codon prevent
• Base dna mutagens mutations physical biological agents sequence
• Sieve plates nucleus and
• Ratio inherited expected diff phenotypes dihybrid cross differ
• Housekeeping tissue-specific genes code enzymes protein-based hormones required
• Genes regulation needed expressed prevents wasting vital resources
• Lactose glucose transcription operon genes protein binds enzymes
• Mrna rna pre-mrna mature added post-transcriptional/pre-translational control processing
• Mrna bind translation translational control stop degrade inhibitory
• E.g protein post-translational add non-protein group lipoprotein/glycoprotein specific
• Dna
• Gene epistatic epistasis hypostatic protein dominant codes pigment
• Ii s unbranched  d amylose forms helix
• Correct enzyme break agarose no
• 100nm 1nm vs
• Ribosomes mito and
• Differentiation
• B dna
• Speciation
• Diff sample catalase find single source
• Blue/black
• Asthma emphysema
• Health volunteer steralise mouthpiece of
• Prevent damaging blood vessels caps thin layers 
• Humidity air movement  and
• Meeds co2 lost cuticle to
• Diff reacts lack genetic diversity organisms
• Ii channel receptor diff
• Ii insulation affects saltatory conduction
• Intensity
• Similarity involved homeostasis is both
• P cortex q ureter
• I radius capillary tube ii h2co3 bubbles co2
• Present air spaces leaf leaves plant o2
• Co2 iii photo dissolves water
• Ethanal
• Make vol contents beads o2 b
• I selective breeding ii gene mutation
• Salting lack water due low wp cell cook
• D
• Crossing independent assortment happen meiosis prophase ia metaphase
• I electrophoresis ii rarely forms seeds iii vegetative
• A
• B
• A
• C
• Atp
• Sucrose soluble sap inactive lost transportation
• Problems blood sugar regulation cardiovascular
• E lactic acid liver blood
• C
• B
• C
• D
• D
• Large pass phospholipids  too to
•  so c 2 8
• Antibiotic resistence  inc in
• A
• Hair erector muscles contract flight make animal larger
• Bonds energy soluble forms h2 water
• Affects rf value
• D
• C ribosomes
• D
• B
• C2
• Polypeptide protein not
• C
• C2
• C
• A
• C
• A
• A
• A
• B
• Lobed nucleus
• A
• Write title large space  take
• Natural selection
• B
• C
• B
• B
• B
• Dividing
• Mito ribosomes and
• Apoplast
• C12
• C7
• `
• A
• A
• A
• B
• A
• B
• A
• B
• D
• D
• C
• C
• A
• 831-68/68 100
• D
• Solubility similar 
• Errors table  units headings columns d.p calculations answers
• Precision repeatable reproducable measurement close agreement similar repeated
• D
• Random errors systematic unpredictable human results differ time
• Big too
• Cofactor
• Dna polymerase dirrection replication  of
• Enviros archeabacteria adapted extreme extremeophiles harsh beggining earth
• Binomial nomenclature capital letter genus rest lowercase underline
• Key perfect enzyme words fit specific mechanisms lock
• Immobalised enzymes surface immbolisation mistake adsorption absorption
• Ecosytems definition interactions living organisms enviro
• Recycling ecosystems saprophytes detritivores main differences decomposers saprophytic
• Neutrophils macrophages nuclei lysosomes mhc non-specific duration immune
• Digested pathogens vesicles ends means form apc made
• Types muscle overview skeletal cardiac involuntary
• C
• C
• Ii
• Loop conc na+ cl fluid tissue descending medulla
• Blood na+ distal convoluted tubule water salt ph
• Blood fluid adh levels membrane water conc inorganic
• Antibodies form hcg monoclonal make pregnant women grown
• B
• 15/ans = 1/25 1/10 1/100
• Bar charts histograms independent variable non-numerical dont touch
• Line fit scale length gradient choose allowing graph
• C unsaturated fatty acid
• A
• Data q points evidence if
• Mix n-14 n-15 strand free nucleotides centrifuged cycle
• Affecting factors enzyme activity temp affects ke succesful
• Prosthetic comp non-comp bound  cofactors/coenzymes groups cofactors minerals
• Chromosomes metaphase independent assortment anaphase splitting centromere sister
• Blood pain immune response key notes inflamation inflamation 
• Intracellular extracellular enzymes intra catalase h2o2 h2o o2
• E.g recycling ecosystems n2 cycle main parts nitrosomas
• Abiotic biotic waterlogged soils factors photo water o2
• T cells clonal mediated humoral immunity extra notes
• Micropropagation process producing large numbers genetically identical offspring
• Enzymes conditions isolated organisms advanced ads waste microorganism
• Anabolic steroids urine drugs mimic action testosterone stimulate
• Drug sample testing metabolites breakdown products filtered kidneys
• Blood kidney effects pressure failure urine due build
• Dialysis blood machine membranes conc urea haemodyalsis involves
• Bronchioles b alveoli a
• Why might micropropagation clone plant  if readily produce seeds
• Animal cloning disadvantages cloned embryos fail develop produced
• Kidney risk immune system antigens treating failure transplants
• Examples drugs living organisms 4.1.1(m aspirin digoxin penicillin 
• Air water make potometer precautions 3.1.3(c measures rate
• Bacterial meningitis 4.1.1(a infection meninges brain spread body
• Divisions micrometer eyepiece stage graticule u mag factor 
• Aa solvent phase separated  organic moved tlc 2.1.2(s
• Form leaves swell food buds stems give ways
• Plant tissue culture medium hormones outline steps micropropagation
• Glucose blood foods increase levels diet starch carb-rich
• Glucose form decrease blood conc respiration energy higher
• Glucose insulin cells rate blood convert roles beta
• Glucose glucagon cells liver blood roles alpha detect
• Cell glucose membrane insulin blood atp k+ channels
• Insulin advantages obtaining gm bacteria animals forms pure
• Cells ways replace pancreatic stem totipotent extracted early
• Dough baking active yeast mixture added flour mixed
• Break starch beer brewing malting enzymes sugars barley
• Milk curds bacterial whey cheese-making pasterised kill natural
• Form conditions disadvantages microoganisms food sterile costs involves
• Organisms break natural gm bioremediation pollutants/contaminents soil/water naturally
• Embryo artificial cells early split form ball divide
• Microorganisms nutrient medium broth l agar s optimises
• Broth inoculating bacteria make suspension grown mix sterile
• Inoculating agar loop lid wire sterilised holding close
• Products batch fermentation microorganisms growth inoculated medium occurs
• Continuous culture medium continually constant microorganisms inoculated sterile
• Messenger triggers camp membrane glucose action adrenaline model
• Chemoreceptors blood ph co2 detect increases heart rate
• Blood pressure impulses medulla heart decreases rate sends
• Adrenal release fight flight hypo ns hormones stress
• Immobalised enzymes attached inert support system substrate passes
• Enzymes cheaper immobalised expensive easily advantages disadvantages reused
• Control negative feedback common small dirrection detected sensory
• Water convection currents air processes controlling organisms heating
• Temperature responses sun bodies warm colours rate regulation
• Responses behavioral physiological inactivity weather endotherms ecotherms hibernation
• Body skin warming surface cooling muscles endotherms responses
• Responses core hypothalamus heat centre activated temp blood
• Hepatic liver blood hepatocytes bile portal vein oxygen
• Basis liver largest internal organ body diaphragm damaged
• Glucose glycogen blood sugar levels due liver functions; carbohydrate
• Aa hepatocytes convert nh3 urea toxic liver functions; deamination
• Virus plant diseases tobacco mosaic 4.1.1(a caused damages
• Animal diseases tubercolosis 4.1.1(a caused bacteria damages destroys
• Hiv strand susceptible rna dna animal diseases hiv/aids
• Blood kidney renal arteriole similar anatomy vessels supplied
• Tubule cortex loop bowmans glomerulus convoluted coiled medulla
• Dna base repeated types regions introns pairs number
• = 480-254/254 100 88.98 88.98/29
• Dna fragments membrane strands polymerase lots step temp
• Activity organism dependent metabolic reactions/processes e.g uptake nitrates
• Energy sun universally conc forever uni expands dissipated
• Energy bonds released form lots atp atoms molecules
• E energy releases protons gradient atp transport chain
• E's rc ps1 light ps2 released entering atp
• Atp molecules phosphorylation forming nad pi attached tp
• Reduced nad form cycle acetyl dehydrogenation atp formed
• Lactate lactic acid pyruvate h2 nad converted o2
• Rq lipids measured respirometer rq=co2 formed/o2 consumed 6o2
• Factors ecosystem abiotic/biotic living e.g made organisms interacting
• Biomass tl lower previous consists cells/tissues organisms present
• Molecules organic decomposers dead essential detritivores breaks smaller
• Nh3 n2 atm living non-living processes n2-fixing bacteria
• Soil species organisms small colonisers pioneer organic secondary
• Pop sample estimate size formula individuals estimating plant/animal
• Pop growth phase steady individuals birth constraints limit
• Pop stage size survival/repro comp intraspecific growth curve
• Words importance conservation social/economic/ecological aswell factors e.g affecting
• Reflex blinking reflex  knee-jerk overview spinal cranial
• Computational data biology bioinformatics biological e.g models development
• Insects plant responses herbivory  chemical defences tannins phenol
• Vocs chemical trees leaves form plant made e.g
• Chlorosis body mass chlorophyll environmental genetic factors examples
• Alleles inherited passed dominant expressed present homo genotype/phenotype
• Homo state genetic hetero phenotype cross monogenic rules
• X allele sex sex-linked chromo chromosomes females males
• Light auxins side grow unlit unilateral phototropisms all-round
• Ethene ripening rate time commercial plant hormones  control
• Weeds main narrow-leaved broad-leaved plants commercial hormones  hormonal
• Repro difficult wild maintain gene pool ex-situ protects
• Species constantly evolving/extinct difficult distinguish
• Comparative biochemistry phylogeny anatomy and
• Cells lining cheek
• Test interbreeding applies asexual relationships
• Sct glt affected pass offspring genetic disease comparing
• Competition barnacles/musscels algae from for
• E,g,b,d,f,h,c,f
• Unlike forrest s chlorophyll breaks d bog minerals
• 0.01-0.018
• Units ethanol x-axis incorrect scale title
• Liver pancreatic skeletal
• Measure diff volume peaks minuite 30s b
• I size stated ii not
• Seed dispersal
• Constant carry temp concs substances remove amount sample
• Heartbeat anomalous  cycles only 1
• Called plasmodium
• W sucrose solution opp situation water
• Respiring tissue high pco2 takes o2
• Methyline blue
• Peer-review replicating studies and
• End cells xylem phloem s made joining d
• A
• B
• Sa:v rate o2 absorption inc
• C,d,b,a b d,a,b,c,e a
• Ii beetroot samples temp pieces sa:v
• High habitat ice property act buffer chemical reactions
• Lots saturated fat/fatty acids ldl
• Branched differences glycogen cellulose alpha beta glyco straight
• Animals plants cleavage furrow centrioles
• Metabolites formed microorganism substances e.g primary secondary desired
• N formula number individual organisms
• Plant diseases animal bacteria virus protoctista fungi overview
• Natural passive active artificial forms immunity overview breast
• Synaptic neurone components synapse overview  cleft presynaptic postsynapyic
• Gross structure brain cerebrum cerebellum medulla hypothalamus pituitary
• Endocrne glands overview pituitary  pineal thyroid thymus adrenal
• Response abiotic stresses herbivory overview leaf loss deciduous
• Aerobic respiraton overview glycolysis link reaction krebs cycle
• Pyruvate lactate ferm anaerobic respiration overview acts h2
• Availability abiotic factors overview light temperature water o2
• Contraction muscles summary fibre appearance  control arrangement speed
• Mutation aa codon gene sequence affects frame protein
• Chromosome section breaks mutations joins gene single gene/sections
• Tissue fluid plasma leaves surrounding larger molecules pass
• End cell walls  bordered pits
• Bubbles present blockage xylem restore column water
• Dihybrid inheritance diff seeds hetero crosses genes e.g
• Modified translation gene regulated transcriptional turned on/off post-transcriptional
• Dna wound histones addition tightly makes cell chromatin
• Genes bv autosomal linkage crossing recombinant unexpected ratio
• Observed phenotypes offspring chi-squared expected sig diff state
• Dont cheap quick carry expose bacteria ineffective antibiotic
• D,a,b
• Microscopes havent resolved lack em small
• Frequency
• Ii f iii d a
• E convoluted tubule f bowmans capsule
• +ve ii charge repels ions  small passage ions
• 1 none 2/3
• Iv release nad glycolysis continue atp formed
• B
• B
• B
• D
• Ii dominant epistasis iii codes repressor protein binds
• Random sampling chance variation small samples  repeat find
• High young lactose diet milk lac y transcribed
• Tlc electro seperates interactions stationary phase wheras electropheresis
• Feature refers environment genetics cause
• Length end middle 20/2 =
• C2
• 30-35c
• Triglycerides phospholipids chloresterol soluble water
• Matrix
• D
• C4
• Anaphase
• Ii
• Factors affecting transmission diameter  temperature
• C11
• C11
• C12
• Resources sustainable run management aims save renewable economically
• Large prod cutting dec soil scale timber  large-scale
• Human balance pops animals density masai mara ele
• Hypothalamus produces regulates temp water balance centres parasympathetic/sympathetic
• Lowland water bogs decline conserve peats conserved maintain
• Include supported animals red plant lake district animals/plants
• Diff neurones stimuli nervous ways responding n/h change
• Schwann cells impulses accross transmitted  gaps speed small
• Na+ potential stimuli resting stretch mediated channels  receptors
• K+ na+ resting creating pot actively transported leads
• Knob synop synoptic swollen end presynoptic neurone ser
• Channels na+ k+ making axon resting open voltage
• Action size stimuli pots created threshold effect level
• Region depolarised stimuli wave depolarisation quick acts repolarised
• Areas cerebral passed cerebrum impulses brain info motor
• Nerve impulse end ap starts/ends action potential starting
• Refractory action period period/hyperpolarisation pot axon exited short
• Nt muscle cholinergic synapses  acetylcholine present cns neuromuscular
• Synoptic vesicle  vesicle nt travels pre synop membrane
• Single multiple roles synapse impulses post synoptic pre
• Stimuli release nt causing number synapse reach threshold
• Spatial summation diff presynoptic neuornes form nt pass
• Temporal nt ap summation summataion single presynoptic neurone

Next page »

Next deck: 极品GRE红宝书(简体中文)

Previous deck: MCAT Biology to come (Jojo)

Up: Index