IB Biology HL

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• Brain consumes body's energy the
• Rate material exchange function its  surface area 
• Examples sa:vol ratio increase body  villi intestinal tissue
• Magnification= image size/actual size 
• Encephalization amount brain mass relative body humans mouse
• Recessive conditions tend common faulty allele present carriers
• Dominant conditions often have late onset prevent reproduction transfer
• Sex linkage refers linked gene controlling characteristic located
• X-linked traits females 2x dominant males homozygous heterozygous
• Endoplasmic reticulum function transport organelles smooth lipids rough
• Emergent properties arise  interaction individual cell components produce
• Differentiation involves expression genes cell's genome 
• Gene packing dna packaged proteins form chromatin 
• Stem cutting separated portion plant regrow independent clone
• Stem cutting's node leaf branch aerial root grow
• Stem cuttings rapidly propagate plant species
• Cells theory states living things composed smallest unit
• Cells striated muscle fibres fuse form long multiple
• Aseptate fungal hyphae  filamentous hyphae separated septa  a
• Giant algae challenges idea larger organisms made microscopic
• Basic functions life  metabolism reproduction response homeostasis excretion
• Paramecium response cilia movement  for
• Paramecium nutrition  engulf food specialised membranous groove called
• Paramecium metabolism  food particles enclosed vacuoles digestive enzymes 
• Waste paramecium excretion solid anal pore liquid contractile
• Paramecium homeostasis  gas exchange diffusion 
• Paramecium reproduction asexual fission horizontal gene transfer conjugation 
• Chlamydomonas reproduction binary fission nuclei fusion division 
• Cell chlamydomonas homeostasis  wall freely permeable membrane oxygen
• Chlamydomonas nutrition photosynthesis
• Chlamydomonas response  beating flagella light-sensitive eyespot sense light
• Rate metabolism cell function its  mass/volume
• Active genes packaged in  expanded form called euchromatin
• Inactive genes packaged in  condensed heterochromatin 
• Key qualities stem cells renewal continuous replication potency
• Totipotent stem cells type  any
• Pluripotent  cell type placenta embryos embryonic stem
• Multipotent  closely related cell types adult stem
• Unipotent  renewal muscle stem cells
• Stem cells therapeutic option amitotic tissues damaged 
• Cells process stem biochemical solutions trigger differentiation  surgical
• Cells stargardt's disease treatment gene mutation impairs energy
• Parkinson's treatment  degenerative disorder cns caused death dopamine
• Cell therapeutic stem uses  leukemia bone marrow transplants
• Sources stem cells  embryos umbilical cord blood/placenta new-born
• Considerations adult stem cells limited scope 
• Considerations umbilical cord blood require storage preservation cost
• Stem considerations embryonic cells greatest yield pluripotent requires
• Artificial stem cell techniques scnt nuclear programming 
• Nuclear programming is  inducing change gene expression profile
• Risks nuclear reprogramming involves oncogenic retroviruses transgenes 
• Advantages nuclear reprogramming autologous stem cells
• Specially prokaryotic cellular components  flagella pili attachment/sex slime
• Dna process binary fission circular copied response replication
• Kingdoms eukaryotes  protista fungi plantae animalia 
• Protista are  unicellular organisms/multicellular organisms specialised tissue
• Fungi obtain nutrition cell wall made chitin heterotrophic
• Ribosomes site translation are the
• Cytoskeleton function  provide internal structure mediate intracellular transport 
• Plasma membrane function semi-permeable barrier regulating molecular transport
• Nucleus structure double membrane pore region called nucleolus 
• Nucleus function stores genetic material chromatin site ribosome
• Endoplasmic reticulum structure membrane network bare smooth studded
• Golgi apparatus is  assembly vesicles folded membranes cell
• Golgi apparatus function  sorting storing modification export secretory
• Mitochondrion double membrane internal cristae 
• Mitochondrion function site aerobic respiration atp production
• Lysosome membranous sac catabolic enzymes 
• Lysosome function catalyses breakdown toxic substances metabolites 
• Centrosome is  microtubule organising center 
• Centrosome function radiate microtubules forming spindle fibres cell
• Chloroplast structure double membrane internal stacks membranous discs
• Chloroplast function site photosynthesis organic molecules stored plastids 
• Large central vacuole function  maintain hydrostatic pressure 
• Cell wall function support mechanical strenght prevents excess
• Advantages electron microscopes higher range magnification resolution 
• Tem generate  high res cross sections objects 
• Sem display  enhanced depth map 3d surface 
• Abundance mitochondria cell undertakes energy consuming processes neurons
• Abundance er indicates  cell undertakes secretory activities plasma
• Abundance lysosomes indicates  cell undertakes digestive process phagocytes
• Diagram animal cell  of an
• Diagram plant cell of a
• Phospholipid structure  hydrophilic head hydrophobic tail 
• Phospholipid arrangement membranes amphipathic arrange bilayer
• Properties phospholipid bilayer  weak hydrophobic interactions tails layers
• Structure membrane proteins  non-polar amino acids polar inside
• Transmembrane proteins adopt tertiary structures
• Cholesterol function cell membrane  maintain integrity mechanical stability 
• Cholesterol is  amphipathic hydrophilic hydroxyl group hydrophobic steroid
• Cholesterol makes membranes fluid permeable small water-soluble molecules
• Cholesterol prevents  crystallisation membrane separating phospholipid tails 
• Cholesterol secures  peripheral proteins forming high density lipid
• Molecule a  glycoprotein  this is
• Davson danielli model layers protein sandwhiching central phospholipid
• Membrane falsifications davson danielli model  proteins insoluble water
• Passive transport occurs concentration gradient
• Diffusion types passive transport  simple small/lipophilic molecules osmosis
• Active transport occurs  concentration gradient 
• Types active transport  primary direct metabolic energy secondary
• Diffusion is  net movement molecules region high concentration
• Molecules move diffuse freely cell membranes small non-polar
• Osmosis diffusion of  free water molecules 
• Membrane facilitated diffusion passive movement molecules cell aid
• Axons nerve cells transmit electrical impulses by  translocating
• Ions sodium potassium rest sodium-potassium pump expels nerve
• Living things biogenesis describes principle arise reproduction spontaneous
• Pasteur's experiments demonstrated  biogenesis 
• Materials transported er membrane bulges buds create vesicle
• Smooth er involved synthesis lipid
• Vesicles budding er transported fuse golgi apparatus internal
• Face materials move vesicles internal cis golgi the 
• Materials golgi apparatus structurally modified secreted externally transported
• Constitutive secretion golgi apparatus the  release materials extracellular
• Regulatory secretion golgi apparatus stored intracellular vesicle delayed
• Weak hydrophobic associations fatty acid tails phospholipids membrane
• Membrane fluidity flexibility for  spontaneous breaking reforming bilayer
• Types endocytosis phagocytosis solids pinocytosis liquids/dissolved substances
• Miller-urey experiment is  recreation prebiotic earth demonstrate non-living
• Dna chromatin chromosome  loosely packed tightly wound  transcribable
• Mitosis prophase supercoiling condensing paired centrosomes polarize form
• Microtubule mitosis metaphase  spindle fibers connect centromeres depolymerisation
• Mitosis anaphase continued microtubule depolymerisation separates chromatids polarize
• Mitosis telophase chromosome sets arrive poles spindle fibres
• Process centripetal cytokinesis animal cells  microtubule filaments form
• Cell form fuse process centrifugal cytokinesis plant post
• Mitotic index measure proliferation status cell population 
• Mitotic index functions a  prognostic tool predicting response
• Cells mitotic index ratio between  mitosis total
• Cyclins are  family proteins regulating cell cycle 
• Mutagen  agent genetic material organism
• Origins mutagens physical uv light chemical arsenic biological
• Carcinogens mutagens lead formation cancer
• Oncogenes are  genes potential cancer
• Genes code cell mutations classes cancer proto-oncogenes cycle/growth/proliferation
• Metastasis spread cancer primary tumour forming secondary
• Cigarette smoke contains  carcinogens 
• Species group organisms potentially interbreed produce fertile opffspring 
• Population is  group organisms species living area time 
• Community group populations living interacting 
• Habitat is  environment species lives 
• Ecosystem is  community abiotic environment 
• Mixotrophs forms nutrition autotrophic heterotrophic
• Detritivores ingest organic molecules found non-living organisms 
• Consumers ingest organic molecules living/recently killed animals 
• Saprotrophs release digestive enzymes absorb external products digestion
• Autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from  abiotic environment 
• Heterotrophs differentially classified their  feeding pattern 
• Savengers cosumers feed dead decaying carcasses
• Organic non-living sources nutrients detritivores include detritus dead
• Availability main components required sustainability ecosystem:  energy sunlight
• Species show positive association include exhibit  predator-prey symbiotic
• Species typically show negative association is  competition resources
• Species competitive exclusion is  utilizing resources efficiently precluding
• Resource partitioning is  species altering environment avoid direct
• Quadrat sampling counting organisms plants sessile animals 
• Chi squared expected frequencies formula row total column
• Trophic levels community producer-consumer  in
• Energy flow ecosystem  enters sunlight photosynthesis heterotrophs feed 
• Energy stored organic molecules e.g sugars lipids released
• Energy transformations living organisms  stored tissues lost respiration/heat/excretion
• Energy chemical produced organism converted kinetic electrical light
• Energy ecosystems require continuous influx external source because 
• Trophic higher levels biomass carbon compounds store energy
• Biomass dimishes food chains loss of  carbon dioxide
• Number trophic levels limited energy biomass lost food
• Energy food trophic level unviable the  expended hunting
• Energy pyramid graphical representation of  amount trophic level
• Energy pyramid expressed units area time 
• Spheres earth are:  atmosphere air lithosphere ground hydrosphere
• Carbon exchanged sphere forms atmospheric gases ch oceanic
• Pulmonary circulation side heart deoxygenated blood lungs 
• Organisms carbon dioxide higher concentration allowing atmosphere/water autotrophs
• Passive diffusion co2 organisms allowed by  respiring tissues
• Compensation point autotrophs engaged uptake production co2 is 
• Net amount carbon dioxide environment determined level photosynthesis
• Carbon aquatic ecosystems present as  dissolved dioxide hydrogen
• Carbonate calcium formed when  hydrogen ions contact rock
• Calcium co2 overview carbonate formation oceans atmospheric aqueous
• Storage co2 earth's crust peat heat+pressure=partially decomposed peat->lignite->coal
• Significant greenhouse gases co2 water vapor 
• Methanogens archaean microorganisms produce ch4 by-product anaerobic digestion
• Methanogens found in  wetlands marine sediments digestive tract
• Underground deposits methane form when  organic matter buried
• Systemic circulation left side heart oxygenated blood body 
• Stages methane production ruminant  hydrolysis acidogenesis acetogenesis methanogenesis 
• Methane levels atmosphere small significant quantities produced naturally
• Decomposition partial occurs regions lacking oxygenated air spaces
• Coal formation peat compressed sediments heat pressure forces
• Oil/natural gas formation anoxic conditions created sediments ocean
• Formation air pollution exergonic combustion hydrocarbon-rich organic compounds 
• Combustion sources fossil fuels heat pressure chemical transformation
• Carbon fluxes describe rate exchange sinks
• Release conversion processes involved carbon sinks photosynthesis uptake
• Main carbon flux changes  climate conditions natural events
• Main carbon flux climate conditions photosynthesis higher summer
• Main carbon flux natural events forest fires co2
• Levels main carbon flux human activity deforestation photosynthesis
• Global co2 trends conform northern hemisphere patterns planet’s land
• Co2 levels fluctuating annually steadily increasing highest recorded
• Greenhouse gases absorb emit  long-wave ir radiation 
• Sources greenhouse gases  water vapor evaporatioin transpiration co2
• Factors determine impact greenhouse gas global warming  ability
• Impact methane atmosphere large radiation absorption capacity abundant 
• Impact water vapor atmosphere enters rapidly remains short
• Impact co2 atmosphere persists years 
• Type radiation sun re-emitted radiation  short uv long
• Rapidly increasing greenhouse gas co2 combustion fossil fuels
• Greenhouse scientists predict increases gas concentrations lead enhanced
• Historic co2 concentrations determined taking ice cores analysing
• Co2 ice data collected vostok core demonstrates strong
• Co2 emissions been  absorbed carbon sinks oceans
• Process chemical modification co2 oceans +h o=carbonic acid
• Carbonate increasing concentrations dissolved carbon dioxide threatens viability
• Loss consequences ocean acidification  disappearance coral reefs shoreline
• Evolution is  change allele frequency population's gene pool
• Law fossil succession is  the chronological sequence complexity characteristics
• Fossil records incomplete fossilisation requires specific set conditions
• Transitional fossils exhibit traits common ancestor predicted descendents
• Selective breeding is  form artificial selection increase frequency
• Animals selective breeding plants generation food types ancestral
• Homologous structures are  anatomical features similar basic ways
• Homologous structures illustrate  adaptive radiation species rapidly diversify
• Pendactyl limb is  homologous structure similar bone arrangements
• Genetic variation population typically  continuous change gradual cumulative 
• Separation degree divergence depends the  extent geographical amount
• Speciation the  evolutionary process related populations diverge separate
• Gene mutation change nucleotide sequence section dna coding
• Beneficial missense mutations change gene sequence create variations
• Detrimental nonsense mutations truncate abrogate normal function trait 
• Neutral silent mutations effect functioning 
• Increase malthusian dilemma  populations geometrically food resouces arithmetically
• Allele frequencies constantly evolving as  environmental conditions change
• Adaptive radiation rapid evolutionary diversification single ancestral line 
• Adaptive radiation occurs members single species occupy variety
• Adaptive radiation  darwin's finches beak size/shape diet
• Antibiotic resistance evolution bacteria  naturally mutated bacteria survives
• Domains life are  bacteria archaea pathogenic extremophile eukarya 
• Hierarchy taxa  kpcofgs of
• Artificial classification involves adv./disadv grouping arbitrarily unifying characteristics
• Natural classification involves adv./disadv grouping based similarities identifying
• Features bryophyta vacularisation root-like rhizoid spores sporangia mosses
• Features filicinophyta  vascularisation leaflets spores underside clusters ferns 
• Features coniferophyta vascularisation woody stems waxy needle leaves
• Features angiospermophyta vascularisation leaves roots stems flowers seeds
• Features porifera symmetry body cavity segmentation example  assymetry
• Features cnidaria symmetry body cavity segmentation example  radial
• Features platyhelmintha symmetry body cavity segmentation example  bilateral
• Features annelida symmetry body cavity segmentation example  bilateral
• Features mollusca symmetry body cavity segmentation example  bilateral
• Features anthropoda symmetry body cavity segmentation example  bilateral
• Features fish body covering reproduction breathing temp features 
• Features amphibian body covering reproduction breathing temp features 
• Features reptile body covering reproduction breathing temp features 
• Features bird body covering reproduction breathing temp features 
• Features mammal body covering reproduction breathing temp features 
• Nodes cladistics represent a  speciation event distinct species
• Distantly related organisms display similar structural features due
• Convergent evolution occus structure type  species selection pressures
• Homologous structures due arise example  common ancestry divergent
• Alimentary canal consists of  oesophagus stomach s.i l.i. 
• Accessory organs include  slivary glands pancreas liver gall
• Oesophagus description function hollow tube connecting oral cavity
• Stomach description function temporary storage tank lined gastric
• Small intestine description function long highly folded tube
• Large intestine description function ascending/transverse/descending/sigmoidal colon rectum water
• Salivary glands description function include parotid submandibular sublingual
• Pancreas description function  produce/release enzymes duodenum secretes hormones
• Liver description function turns nutrients s.i chemicals detoxification
• Bile gall bladder description function  stores lipids released
• Draw annotate human digestive system 
• Modes mechanical digestion chewing epiglottis uvula churning chyme
• Segments modes food movement description peristalsis rhythmic contrac/relax
• Bile modes chemical digestion stomach acids denature proteins+macromolecules
• Protecting stomach body acids  epithelium mucous membrane gastric
• Amylase digestion carbs begin mouth salivary glands continue
• Digestion proteins  stomach proteases pancreas small polypeptide chains
• Digestion lipids  intestines emulsification globules bile gall bladder
• Digestion nucleic acids  dna/rna nucleosides nucleases pancreas
• Structure small intestine serosa muscle layer submucosa mucosa 
• Description serosa small intestine protective outer covering layer
• Muscle description layer small intestine outer longtitudinal peristalsis
• Description submucosa small intestine connective tissue separating muscle
• Description mucosa small intestine highly folded absorbs material
• Features villi microvilli increase s.a rich blood supply
• Structure villus epithelium tight junctions microvilli mitochondria pinocytotic
• Structure villus epithelium tight junctions impermeable barrier plasma
• Structure villus epithelium microvilli increase s.a absorption site
• Structure villus epithelium mitochondria  epithelial cells active transport
• Structure villus epithelium pinocytotic vesicles non-specific uptake/bulk translocation
• Membrane transport mechanisms  secondary active facilitated diffusion osmosis
• Transport active membrane mechanisms secondary glucose amino acids
• Membrane transport mechanisms facilitated diffusion channel proteins hydrophilic
• Membrane transport mechanisms osmosis  response dissolved ion movement
• Membrane transport mechanisms simple diffusion hydrophobic triglycerides pass
• Glands role pancreas starch digestion  produces amylase exocrine
• Glycogen pancreatic regulation storage liver  insulin lowers glucose
• Measuring starch digestion experiments dialysis tubing  meniscus levels
• Arteries harvey's propositions veins part single network heart
• Sets atria ventricles because  distinct locations blood transport
• Maintain specialised structure arteries  narrow lumen high pressure
• Maintain function muscle fibres artieral wall rigidity contraction
• Elastic function fibres artieral wall expansion flow pulse
• Function capillaries exchange materials cells tissues blood travelling
• Arteries veins  arterioles capillaries decreasing arterial pressure pool
• Specialised structures capillaries small diameter single cell time
• Types capillaries continuous fenestrated sinusoidal 
• Types capillaries continuous  endothelial cells held tight junctions
• Types capillaries fenestrated  pores tissues specialised absorption kidneys
• Types capillaries sinusoidal open spaces cells permeable large
• Blood pressure end bloodstream flow capillaries  higher hydrostatic
• Specialised structure veins  wide lumen maximise flow thin
• Skeletal blood muscle role arteries venous flow  veins
• Tunica wall layers veins arteries  adventitia media intima
• Wall layer capillaries  tunica intima 
• Atrioventricular valves  left bicuspid tricuspid 
• Semilunar valves ventricles arteries left aortic pulmonary
• Deoxygenated atrium pulmonary ventricle's oxygenated blood vessels heart
• Heart myogenic contraction means  signal beat initiated cardiomyocyte
• Node primary secondary tertiary pacemakers  sinoatrial av bundle
• Fibrillation the  irregular uncoordinated contraction heart muscle due
• Defibrillation is  re-establishment normal sinus rhythm controlled electrical
• Atrial contractions delay ventricular for  ventricles fill blood
• External signals regulating basal heart rate nerve signalling
• Control nerve's nerve signalling heart rate  autonomic medulla
• Hormonal signalling control heart rate  sustained increase rate
• Type ii pneumocytes  secrete pulmonary surfactant cuboidal shape
• Atrium atrial systole chambers blood flow valves  contracts
• Ventricle ventricular systole chambers blood flow valves  atrium
• Atrium diastole chambers blood flow valves  ventricle relaxed
• Coronary arteries  surround heart nourish cardiac tissue 
• Coronary occlusion  atherosclerosis  cause of
• Atherosclerosis is  hardening narrowing arteries due cholesterol deposition 
• Consequence coronary occlusion  heart attack 
• Risk factors coronary heart disease  age genetics obesity
• Surface barriers preventing entry pathogens body skin dry
• Surface barriers preventing entry pathogens body mucous membranes
• Clotitng functions to  prevent blood loss limit pathogenic
• Primary haemostasis  platelets undergo structural change activated form
• Secondary haemostasis  fibrin strands form insoluble mesh fibres
• Fibrinogen is  soluble plasma protein involved blood clotting 
• Fibrin is  insoluble fibrous form fibrinogen involved blood
• Innate immune system is  line defense non-specific non-adaptive 
• Function pulmonary surfactant alveoli reduce surface tension prevent
• Pseudopodia are  cellular extensions 
• Antigen is  substance body recognises foreign elicit immune
• Antibody is  protein produced b lymphocytes plasma cells
• Features antibodies made polypeptide chainds joined disulphide bonds
• Antibiotics are  compounds kill inhibit growth microbes targeting
• Metabolic features targeted antibiotics  key enzymes 70s ribosomes
• Antibiotics either  bactericidal kill bacteriostatic suppress reproduction
• Antiviral treatments target  viral enzymes reverse transcriptase components
• Forms bacterial resistance  bacteria degrade antibiotic, block entry increase
• Prevalance resistant bacterial strains increasing rapidly human populations
• Antibiotic resistant strain bacteria  mrsa
• Benefits methicillin synthetic derivative penicillin  broader spectrum stability
• Hiv mechanisms infection  sexual contact pregnancy/childbirth/breast feeding injection
• Processes involved physiological respiration  ventilation air gas exchange
• Ventilation purpose oxygen consumed cellular respiration  produced waste
• Respiratory tract  air enters nose mouth pharynx trachea
• Structure alveolus  thin epithelial layer surrounded capillaries spherical
• Type i pneumocytes  involved gas exchange flattened shape
• Function occluding junctions type i pneumocytes  prevent leakage
• Mechanism breathing occurs principle of  boyle's law pressure
• Inspiration the  chest pressure lower atmospheric air enters 
• Expiration the  chest pressure greater atmospheric air leaves 
• Chest changing volume creates a  pressure differential atmosphere
• Muscle actions inspiration diaphragm external intercostals contract
• Muscle actions expiration diaphragm relax internal intercostals contract
• Lung cancers common cancer-related deaths vital normal body
• Common symptoms lung cancer include  coughing blood wheezing
• Common risk factors lung cancer radiation aging pollution
• Emphysema is  lung condition damage alveolar walls reduces
• Elastase emphysema  chemical irritants cigarette smoke damage lung
• Pulmonary bullae are  large air spaces alveoli merge
• Ventilation increase exercise influences ways rate continuous exchange
• Measuring ventilation counting breaths chest belt pressure meter
• Spirometry involves  measuring volume speed inhalation/exhalation 
• Basic components neuron  dendrites axon soma 
• Dendrites are  short-branched fibres convert chemical information neurons/receptor
• Axons are  elongated fibres transmit signals terminal regions
• Soma is  cell body nucleus organelles 
• Myelin sheath  improves conduction speed electrical impulses axon 
• Resting potential is  difference charge membrane neuron mv
• Sodium potassium pump involves active translocation expelling na
• Action potential consists depolarization repolarization neuron refractory period 
• Depolarisation involves sodium channel opened response signal initiated
• Repolarisation involves  restoration post depolarisation potassium channels open
• Period refractory the  time nerve impulse neuron fire
• Refractory period the  resting potential restored action sodium-potassium
• Nerve impulses are  action potentials moving axon wave
• Axon ion channels depolarisation point triggers opening segment
• Description oviduct transports oocyte uterus site fertilisation 
• Action potential all-or-none principle is  magnitude occur provided
• Threshold potentials triggered when  combined stimulation dendrites exceeds
• Myelin mixture of  protein phospholipids produced glial cells 
• Main purpose myelin sheath to  increase speed electrical
• Myelinated neurons action potentials hop nodes ranvier gaps
• Advantage disadvantage neurons insulated myelin sheath  improves speed
• Synapses are  physical gaps separating neurons receptor cells
• Neurotransmitters which  chemical messengers released neurons transmit signals
• Neurotransmitters released response to  depolarisation axon terminal presynaptic
• Function acetylcholine  trigger muscle contraction 
• Acetylcholine created axon terminal combining choline acetyl group 
• Acetylcholine stored in  vesicles axon terminal 
• Acetylcholine activates post-synaptic cell binding whih classes specific
• Acetylcholine continually removed synapse as  overstimulation lead fatal
• Acetylcholine broken component parts by  ache released synapse
• Neonicotinoid pesticides broken ache function by  irreversably binding
• Populations disadvantages neonicotinoid linked reduction honey bee important
• Graded potentials are  small membrane due opening ligand-gated
• Excitatory neurotransmitters by  depolarisation opening ligand-gated potassium chlorine
• Inhibitory neurotransmitters by  hyperpolarisation opening ligand-gated potassium chlorine
• Insulin released from  pancreatic beta cells 
• Insulin functions to  stimulate glycogen synthesis liver promote
• Glucagon released from  pancreatic alpha cells 
• Glucagon functions to  stimulate glycogenolysis liver promote glucose
• Type i diabetes when  body fails produce insulin 
• Type ii diabetes when  body fails respond insulin 
• Features type i diabetes early onset requires insulin
• Features type ii diabetes  late onset caused down-regulation
• Primary role thyroxin increase basal metabolic rate energy
• Thyroxin functions by  stimulating carbohydrate lipid metabolism oxidation
• Leptin produced by  adipose cells 
• Function leptin  binds receptors located hypothalamus inhibit appetite 
• Leptin densensitisation resistance develop overeating age 
• Melatonin produced by  pineal gland response light 
• Circadian rhythms are  body's physiological responses hour day-night
• Melatonin functions to  synchonise circadian rhythms regulate body's
• Control melatonin secretion  suppressed light principally blue wavelenths
• Jet lag is  physiological condition resulting change body's
• Symptoms jet lag include headaches lethargy increased irritability
• Melatonin treat jet lag  artificial increase levels night
• Leads male gonad development  sry gene y chromosome
• Leads development female gonads  absence tdf protein
• Testes produce promote development male sex characteristics  testosterone 
• Ovaries produce promote development female sex characteristics estrogen
• Male roles testosterone development  pre-natal development genetalia isperm
• Male secondary sex characteristics  libido voice deepening hair
• Female secondary sex characteristics  breasts wider hips fat
• Description testis  responsible sperm testosterone production 
• Description epididymis site sperm matures develops motility stored 
• Description vas deferens  long tube conducting sperm testes
• Sperm description seminal vesicles  secretes fluid fructose nourish
• Description prostate gland  secretes alkaline fluid neutralise vaginal
• Semen description urethra  conducts prostate gland convey urine 
• Description ovary  oocytes mature prior ovulation responsible estrogen
• Description fimbria  fringe tissue adjacent ovary sweeps oocytes
• Description uterus  organ fertilised egg implant embryo 
• Description endometrium  mucous membrane lining uterus thickens preparation
• Description vagina passage leading uterus penis enter
• Description cervix muscular opening protecting uterus 
• Pituitary hormones released act on  anterior gland ovaries
• Ovarian hormones released act the  ovaries uterus prepare
• Function fsh stimulates follicular growth ovaries estrogen secretion
• Function lh surge ovulation results formation corpus luteum
• Fsh lh function estrogen  thickens endometrium inhibits cycle
• Function progesterone  thickens endometrium inhibits fsh lh 
• Phase key events menstrual cycle  follicular ovulation luteal
• Estrogen menstrual cycle follicular phase  fsh secreted stimulates
• Lh menstrual cycle ovulation  ~day estrogen stimulates anterior
• Follicle menstrual cycle luteal phase  ruptured develops slowly
• Corpus menstrual cycle menstruation  fertilised embryo implant endometrium
• Ivf involves  fertilisation body drugs regulate ovulation hormones
• Secretion description regulation  drugs halt regular fsh lh
• Stimulate process superovulation injection large amounts fsh follicles
• Process ivf regulation superovulation fertilisation implantation 
• Scientists accredited determining dna genetic material cell  hershey
• Genetic material summary hershey-chase experiment  culturing cells radioactive
• Scientists discovered basic structure dna  franklin wilkins 
• X-ray dna description diffraction investigate structure dna  purified
• Dna conclusions crystallographic analysis forms helix double stranded
• Dna composed equal number a/g c/t indicating purines
• Pairs a-t c-g bonds lengths as  a/t hydrogen
• Mechanisms dna replication  occurs complementary base pairing a-t
• Dna replication role helicase replication  unwinds separates strands
• Dna role gyrase replication  reduces torsional strain created
• Dna role single stranded binding proteins in replication  bind
• Dna role primase in replication  generates short rna primer
• Dna role polymerase iii in replication  attaches end primer
• Dna role polymerase i in replication  replaces rna primers
• Dna role ligase in replication  joins okazaki fragments backbone
• Free nucleotides exist dntps phosphate groups
• Ddntps because  dna sequencing lack 3'-hydroxyl group forming
• Non-coding types dna satellite telomeres introns rna regions
• Types non-coding dna satellite tandem repeats structural component
• Types non-coding dna telomeres  regions repetitive end chromosome
• Types non-coding dna introns  genes removed rna splicing
• Non-coding rna genes types dna codes molecules translated
• Types non-coding dna gene regulatory sequences  involved process
• Method str dna profiling  excised restriction enzymes separated
• Organisation eukaryotic dna  nucleosome chromatosome solenoid structure nm
• Formation nucleosome  neg dna associates pos amino acids
• Sections gene promoter coding sequence terminator 
• Sequence sections gene promoter non-coding initiation transcription located
• Sections gene coding sequence region dna transcribed rna
• Sections gene terminator rna polymerase transcribes reaching sequence
• Dna antisense strand transcribed rna version trna anticodon
• Strand sense transcribed rna dna version sequence coding
• Determination sense antisense gene specific because  polynucleotide gene 
• Sequence rna transcription process dna copied complementary polymerase 
• Free nucleotides exist cell as  nucleoside triphosphates ntps
• Steps transcription initiation elongation termination 
• Steps transcription initiation rna polymerase binds promoter unwinding 
• Rna steps transcription elongation polymerase moving coding sequence
• Rna steps transcription termination polymerase reaches terminator enzyme
• Eukaryotes post-transcriptional events occur order form mature messenger
• Post-transcriptional event form mature rna capping addition methyl
• Function methylated cap mature rna  protects degredation exonucleases
• Post-transcriptional event form mature rna polyadenylation addition poly-a-tail
• Description function poly-a-tail long chain adenine nucleotides improves
• Post-transcriptional event form mature rna splicing  remove introns
• Form post-transcriptional event mature rna alternative splicing removing
• Function regulatory proteins  bind dna sequences promoter interact
• Regulatory proteins activator bind enhancer sites mediate complex
• Regulatory proteins repressor bind silencer sequences prevent complex
• Presence transcription factors regulatory proteins be  tissue-specific 
• Control elements are  dna sequences regulatory proteins bind
• Binding types control elements distal regulatory protein site
• External internal environment result gene expression patterns as 
• Examples organism changing gene expression patterns response environmental
• Charge methods modifying histone tails acetylation neutralises loosen
• Types chromatin euchromatin loose transcribable heterochromatin supercoiled
• Genes transcribed dna methylation tend exhibit actively because 
• Life-point factors contributing dna methylation patterns  fertilisation parent-of-origin
• Methylation patterns conclusions made comparing identical twins  genetic
• Methylation conclusion made comparison patterns healthy diseased twins
• Ribosomes made of  protein stability ribosomal rna catalytic
• Small subunit ribosome contains  mrna binding site 
• Large subunit ribosome contains  trna binding sites aminoacyl
• Ribosomes found  freely flaoting cytosol bound rough er 
• Regions cloverleaf trna molecule acceptor stem t arm
• Description function trna region acceptor stem  3'-cca carries
• Function trna region t arm  associates ribosome binding
• Function trna region anticodon associates mrna codon complementary
• Trna function region d arm  associates activating enzyme
• Amino acid trna binding acceptor stem occurs result
• Small subunit binds trna process initiation translation ribosomal
• Amino acid process translation elongation trna pairs codon
• Moves trna process traslation translocation ribosomes mrna strand
• Ribosome process translation termination reaches stop codon recruits
• Occur translation immediately transcription prokaryotes due absence nuclear
• Polysome is  group ribosomes translating mrna sequence simultaneously
• Proteins produced eukaryotic cells initially synthesised ribosomes found
• Describe lignin annular vessels  pattern circular rings 
• Er signal protein translation membrane role recognition particle
• Amino describe primary structure proteins  acid sequence formed
• Primary structure proteins control subsequent levels organisation because 
• Describe secondary structure protein repeating folds alpha-helices/beta-pleated sheets/random
• Function secondary protein structure polypeptide chain mechanical stability
• Bonds describe tertiary structure proteins  coiling interactions r
• Describe quaternary structure proteins  multiple polypeptides prosthetic groups
• Group prosthetic ex.  inorganic compound involved protein structure
• Metabolic pathways are  series reactions resulting chemical greater
• Examples chain metabolic pathway  glycolysis coagulation cascade 
• Examples cyclic metabolic pathways  krebs cycle calvin cycle 
• Function enzymes  bind substrate stresses destabilises bonds reduce
• Catabolism is  breakdown 
• Anabolism is  building up 
• Reactants exergonic reaction products energy free released system 
• Reactants endergonic reaction products energy free lost system 
• Substrate describe competitive inhibition inhibitor structurally chemically similar
• Substrate describe noncompetitive inhibition  molecule binds allosteric site
• Relenza neuraminidase docking protein functioning virions released infected
• Functioning cyanide non-competitively binds cytochrome oxidase part prevents
• End-product inhibition form negative feedback metabolic pathways controlled 
• Product functioning end inhibition final inhibits enzyme earlier
• Threonine isoleucine end-product inhibition pathway plants bacteria converted
• Factors affecting enzyme activity graphs
• Mode inhibition reduces vmax reaction  non-competitive inhibition 
• Isoleucine  essential amino acid found eggs cheese fish 
• Rational drug design is  computer modelling techniques invent
• Function anti-malarial drugs  inhibit enzymes involved parasitic metabolism 
• Phosphorylation process atp  atp high energy makes stable
• Cell key functions atp powers metabolism transfers released
• Energy synthesis atp fromm adp solar photosynthesis oxidation
• Advantage discrete steps cell respiration reduces ea requirements
• Cell respiration is  controlled breakdown organic molecules steps 
• Reduction is  gain electrons/hydrogen loss oxygen
• Oxidation is  loss electrons/hydrogen gain oxygen 
• Reduced oxidized cell respiration nad+ nadh fad fadh
• Hydrogen function carriers  transport electrons ions oxidized organic
• Steps cell respiration  glycolysis link reaction krebs cycle
• Phosphorylation hexose sugar pyruvates location process product glycolysis
• Process anaerobic respiration fermentation pyruvate produces lactic acid/ethanol
• Acetyl group location process product link reaction  mitochondrial
• Acetyl coa citrate location process products krebs cycle 
• Location process electron transport mitochondrial membrane oxidative phosphorylation
• Electrons protons transport generating motive force  nadh fadh
• Atp cell respiration synthesis chemiosmosis proton motive force
• Binds electrons cell respiration reduction oxgen oxygen de-energised
• Atp substrate level overview phosphorylation products cell respiration
• Nadh overview oxidation products cell respiration glycolysis link
• Overview decarboxylation products cell respiration link reaction krebs
• Nadh hydrogen carrier atp yields matrix cystolic fadh
• Membrane regions mitochondria  outer cristae intermembrane space matrix 
• Function regions mitochondria outer membrane  transport proteins enable
• Function regions mitochondria membrane  of
• Function regions mitochondria cristae  arrangement membrane folds increasing
• Function regions mitochondria intermembrane space  small space maximizes
• Function regions mitochondria matrix  central cavity enzymes ph
• Electron tomography involves  taking micrograph snapshots angles planes
• Molecules photosynthesis is  synthesis organic inorganic presence sunlight 
• Light photosynthesis dependent reactions location process thylakoids absorbed
• Photosynthesis light independent reactions location process stroma nadph
• Photosystems are  groups photosynthetic pigments embedded thylakoid membrane 
• Light photosystems dependent reactions excitation energy step process
• Maximal absorption wavelengths photosystems ii i
• Electrons atp protons light dependent reactions production step
• Electrons nadp+ photolysis ps1 lost ps2 replaced light
• Ps1 electron description cyclic photophosphorylation  involves photoactivation enters
• Electrons ps2 photoactivation description non-cyclic photophosphorylation involves ps1
• Differences cyclic non-cyclic photophosphorylation  between
• Steps light independent reactions carboxylation rubp reduction gp
• Light independent reactions carbon fixation  rubp catalyses attachment
• Gps light independent reactions reduction converted tps nadph
• Rubp light independent reactions regeneration tp form half
• Light compounds periods carbon describe calvin's lollipop experiment
• Regions chloroplast thylakoids grana photosystems stroma lamellae
• Regions chloroplast thylakoid  flattened discs large sa:vol ratio
• Regions chloroplast grana thylakoid stacks 
• Regions chloroplast photosystems pigments thylakoid membrane maximise light
• Regions chloroplast stroma central cavity, contains enzymes suitable ph
• Regions chloroplast lamellae connects separates grana maximise photosynthetic
• Shows meant food chain feeding relationships flow energy
• Methane distinguish thermal properties water water's bp mp
• Transpiration is  loss water vapour stomata stems leaves 
• Transpiration water roots pressure generates stream absorbed difference
• Stomata are  pores underside leaf facilitate gas exchange 
• Leaf cell transpiration pull generated tension force walls
• Aba regulating leaf transpiration rate guard cells flank
• Transpiration stream flow water xylem roots leaf gravity
• Stream water role cohesion transpiration attraction molecules polar
• Water wall xylem role adhesion transpiration stream  attraction
• Structure xylem  tube hollow dead cells tracheids/vessel elements
• Xylem function hollow tube dead cells  free passive
• Xylem function cell wall pits enables water transfer
• Xylem function lignin strength water transported tension 
• Tracheids found tapered cells exchange water solely pits, found
• Vessel elements found cells end walls fused form
• Describe lignin spiral vessels  present helix coil 
• Root types systems fibrous highly branching increased s.a
• Materials description absorption roots diffuse cortex central stele
• Mineral h  ions ions description uptake roots  pump
• Minerals typically uptaken roots include  mg na k
• Water description uptake plant roots  mineral ions root
• Leaves stomata adaptions xerophytes dry conditions  reduced s.a
• Toxic ions salt adaptions halophytes high salinity cellular
• Models water transport xylem capillary tubing filter/blotting paper
• Capillary modelling water transport xylem tubing explanation results
• Water paper  modelling transport xylem filter paper absorbs
• Water loss porous pots modelling transport xylem semi-permeable
• Potometer is   a device estimate transpiration rates measuring
• Potometer tracks  as assessed water movement change meniscus
• Impact temperature transpiration rate  increased vaporisation mesophyll evaporation
• Impact humidity transpiration rate  vapour diffusion humid air 
• Light impact intensity transpiration rate  exposure opens stomata
• Impact wind exposure transpiration rate  air circulation removes
• Translocation is  movement organic compounds source sink
• Sugars principally transported phloem sucrose soluble metabolically inert 
• Cells composition phloem sieve element companion schlerenchymal parenchymal
• Sieve description element cells long narrow connected plates
• Plasma description companion cells  possess infolding membrane mitochondria
• Function companion cells  provide metabolic support sieve element
• Sieve elements unable sustain independent metabolic activity because 
• Description plasmodesmata exist sieve elements companion cells large
• Ring vascular bundles roots monocot outer phloem xylem
• Vascular bundles roots dicot x-xylem outer phloem 
• Scattered vascular bundles stems monocot phloem xylem inside 
• Vascular bundles arranged pith dicot phloem cambium middle
• Sucrose h description apoplastic loading phloem sieve tubes 
• Sap water pressure description active translocation sucrose phloem
• Sink phloem active transport sucrose solutes unloaded companion
• Succesion layers pierced aphid stylet  epidermis mesophyll companion
• Radio-labelled phloem measuring transport aphids  plant leaves sealed
• Rate of phloem transport principally determined concentration dissolved sugars
• Meristems are  tissues undifferentiated plant cells capable indeterminate
• Plants meristematic tissues regrow structures form vegetative propagation
• V apical meristems lateral meristems  primary lengthening secondary
• Growth cell describe apical meristems  due enlargement repeated
• Shoot apical growth axillary buds role auxin dominance 
• Auxin action shoots roots  stimulates v inhibits cell
• Function auxin efflux pumps establish concentration gradients control
• Auxin h cell wall describe auxin's mechanism action
• Tropisms describe  growth/turning movement plant response directional external
• Phototropism is  growth movement response unidirectional light source
• Geotropism is  growth movement response gravitational forces
• Hydrotropism is  growth movement response water gradient 
• Shoot explain positive phototropism  dark side elongates grows
• Root explain negative phototropism dark side shorter grows
• Micropropagation technique produce clones selectred stock plant 
• Micropropagation  rapid bulking desirable plants converve characteristic virus-free
• Methods plant reproduction vegetative propagation spore formations pollen
• Phases sexual reproduction plants  pollination anther pollen grains
• Flowering gains describe mutualistic relationship pollinators plants  plant
• Flowers reproductive organs develops by  activation genes abiotic
• Blood renal composition artery vein mineral rich oxygenated
• Blood process ultrafiltration glomerulus hydrostatic pressure flow forces
• Reaction zona mechanisms prevent polyspermy acrosome digestion pellucida
• B stages antibody production activation exhibiting phagocytes cell
• Antibodies cells production monoclonal specific antigen injected animal
• Monosaccharide examples glucose fructose galactose 
• Disaccharide examples sucrose lactose maltose
• Polysaccharide examples starch cellulose glycogen
• Anabolism synthesis is
• Catabolism breakdown  is
• Cohesivity water stick due polarity forming h bonds
• Adhesivity water stick charged/polar substances
• High heat thermal properties water expands freezes floating
• Solvent properties water universal lots molecules interrupts ionic
• Blood soluble substances transported glucose amino acids plasma 
• Maltose made of  glucose  is
• Lactose made glucose galactose is
• Sucrose made of  glucose fructose 
• Cis-isomers features common nature bent chain low density
• Trans-isomer features rare nature opposite sides straight chain
• Bmi kg/m = 2
• Neural tube precursor cns  to
• Somite part mesoderm rise vertebrae
• Notochord flexible rod responsible neurulation
• Mesoderm middle germ layer early embryo
• Archenteron rudimentary digestive tract 
• Endoderm germ layer early embryo
• Ectoderm outer germ layer early embryo 
• Spina bifida general birth defect results incomplete complete
• Spina bifida occulta spinal chord protrude splits vertebrae
• Spina bifida cystica meningeal cyst forms meningocele include
• Cells  types nerve neurons glial
• Neurons conduct messages sensory/motor/relay
• Cells glial nerve provide physical nutritional support neurons
• Neurons produced progenitor neuroblasts neurogenesis 
• Immature neurons migrate adopt precise final positions form
• Neural migration occur glial guidance somal translocation
• Glial guidance  cells provide scaffolding network immature neuron
• Mass brain body increases disproportionately increase tasks require fixed
• Somal translocation neuron form extension cell’s perimeter translocate
• Axon  long slender projection neuron conducts electricity neuron's
• Synapse  junction neuron transmits signal cell 
• Synaptic outline formation synapses developing neurons  birth neurons
• Neural pruning process synapse elimination retraction axons unwanted
• Apoptosis neurons killing cell eliminating connections
• Neuroplasticity  describes change brain individual's life 
• Symptoms spina bifida weakness/paralysis lower limbs urinary incontinence
• Stroke brain cells starved oxygen blockage blood flow
• Pituitary gland  secretes hormones
• Cerebellum helps coordinate muscle movement balance 
• Hypothalamus controls secretion hormones pituitary
• Cerebral hemisphere complex thought memory problem solving
• Broca's area thoughts speech into
• Cerabral cortex outer layer tissue organisex lobes frontal
• Frontal lobe  controls motor activity tasks dopamine system
• Parietal lobe responsible tactility spacial navigation
• Temporal lobe involved auditory processing language comprehension
• Occipital lobe visual processing responsible sight perception 
• Brain stem posterior connects spinal cord includes pons
• Brain stem controls medulla automatic involuntary activities
• Corpus callosum bundle nerve fibres connecting cerebral hemispheres
• Glasgow coma scale  testing neurological health suspected brain
• Lesions abnormal area brain tissue loss identified post-mortem
• Brain fmri records blood flow identify activity oxygenated
• Methods identifying brain functions animal experiments autopsy lesions
• Visual cortex occipital lobe receives neural impulses light-sensitive
• Brocas area present left cerebral hemisphere
• Pleasure nucleus accumbens involved reward pathway found cerebral
• Cerebral cortex humans mammals forms largerer portion brain
• Gyrification gyrus sulcus extensive folding form wrinkled preaks
• Lateralization brain function of
• Processing contralateral information opposite side body
• Side contralateral processing motor information damage brain affects
• Divisions nervous system  of the
• Parasympathetic response 
• Sympathetic response
• Pupil reflex involuntary response originates brainsteam resizing iris
• Brain death  permanent absense measurable activity cerebrum brainstem 
• Neurons energy sustains in  maintaining resting potential firing
• Sensitivity describes ability organism detect external internal respond
• Mechanoreceptor movement ears/arteries/skin in
• Chemoreceptor chemicals tongue/nose/tissues in
• Thermoreceptor temperature skin/hypothalamus in
• Photoreceptor light eyes in
• Eye regions human fluid filled cavities separated lens
• Fovea region retina responsible sharpest vision
• Ciliary muscles contract relax change focus lens 
• Summation combination graded potentials post-synaptic neuron cancellation spatial
• Light nerve process reception eye enters photoreceptors convert
• Pinna external part fo ear
• Auditory canal outer ear channels sound waves eardrum
• Ossicles small bones middle ear transforms vibrations oval
• Ear consists cochlea semicircular canals round window dissipates
• Cochlear  converts sound stimuli nito electrical nerve impulses
• Rod cell photoreceptor functions low light rhodopsin monochromatic
• Cone cell photoreceptor function bright light high resolution
• Sound ear causing movement process perception human eardrum
• Stimuli brain cells transmit impulse ganglion transmission visual
• Information half left contralateral processing eyes visual field
• Sound amplification ossicles travelling air reflected contracted liquid
• Bones middle ear hammer anvil stirrup
• Hair movement nerve auditory structure cells ceilia varying
• System vesitbular sensory ear involved balance spatial orientation
• Head movement semicircular canals hair endolymph process vestibular
• Semicircular canals exist at  degree angles allowing head
• Olfaction ability detect airborne chemicals scents smells 
• Olfactory receptors embedded epithelium back nasal cavity lined
• Red-green color-blindness variant normal trichromatic vision mutation red/green
• Cochlear implants stimulate auditory centres brain patients non-functioning
• Hearing aids amplify sounds bypass defective structures
• Signals internal parts cochlear implant external microphone/transmitter detect
• Innate behavior instinctive response developmentally fixed independent environmental
• Taxis innate change movement response stimulus positive/negative euglena
• Kinesis innate change rate activity response stimulus woodlice
• Stimulus response model receptors transform stimuli nerve impulse
• Refleves involuntary responses sensory information directly relayed motor
• Pain withdrawl reflex
• Learned behavior developmentally fixed modifiable shows significant variation
• Behavioral imprinting learned phase-sensitive critical period rapid independent
• Sexual types imprinting  filial bonding parent developing preferences
• Conditioning process behavior modification associating desired unrelated stimuli 
• Reflex conditioning placing neutral stimulus reflect create desired
• Behavior operant conditioning applying positive reinforcement punishment increase/reduce
• Reflex conditioning pavlov's dog  example
• Operant conditioning rat box positive/negative reinforcement/punishment
• Reinforcement adding stimulus increase likelihood repeated behavior 
• Punishment decreases likelihood repeated behavior
• Template adult tutor song birdsong development  innate vocalization
• Memory process encoding storing accessing information 
• Encoding  converting information form stored visual cues sound
• Accessing retrieval store information to actively cognitive processes
• Post-synaptic excitatory post synaptic neurons stimulates ap influx
• Post-synaptic inhibitory neuron inhibits ap nt binds receptors
• Spacial summation occurs epsps generated multiple presynaptic neurons
• Temporal summation occurs multiple epsps generated single presynaptic
• Cancellation epsps ipsps cancel threshold reached
• Fast-acting neurotransmitters bind directly ligand-gated ion channels to initiate
• Slow-acting neurotransmitters will  bind g-protein coupled receptors initiate
• Neuromodulators slow-acting neurotransmitters modulate efficiency synaptic transfer
• Examples fast-acting neurotransmitters glutamate epsp gaba ipsp
• Examples slow-acting neurotransmitters dopamine serotonin acetylcholine noradrenaline
• Increase promoted messengers dendritic receptors post-synaptic neuron improving
• Long term potential repeated stimulation making memories actions
• Stimulants psychoactive drug increases psychomotor arousal alertness
• Depressants psychoactive drugs slow brain activities relax muscles
• Examples stimulants caffeine cocaine amphetamines mdma nicotine
• Examples depressants alcohol thc benzodiazepines
• Pathways nicotine function stimulates cholinergic mimicking acetylcholine binds
• Reuptake pumps presynaptic neurons mdma function binds blocks
• Gaba benzodiazepine function bind receptors post-synaptic neuron increase
• Dopamine thc function mimics neurotransmitter anandamide binding cannabinoid
• Effect mdma serotonin dopamine increase activity increasing release
• Anesthetics  act ion channels block conduction sensory nerve
• General anesthetic block presynaptic ca entry transmitter release
• Local anesthetic  inhibit axonal na entry ap propagation
• Endorphins pituitary natural painkiller bind opiate-receptors pre-synaptic neurons
• Thymidine silver bromide cells tritiated chromosomes surface grains
• Replication involves discover dna visualise chromosomes whilst uncoiled
• Genomes plant viruses bacteria tend small prokaryotes typically
• Division meiotic separates meiosis involves reduction diploid germline cell
• Chromosomes cell homologous spindle fibres nuclear membrane form
• Chromosomes centrosomes move opposite poles spindle fibres nuclear
• Homologoes chromosomes pair form tetrad held points called
• Chromosomes homologous assortment line equator tetrads arrangements orientation
• Chorionic weeks risk miscarriage villi sampling removing sample
• Cftr gene chromosome produce mucus unusually thick sticky
• Huntingtin sequence repeats htt gene chromosome possesses repeating
• Blood formation factors haemophilia coagulation x-linked recessive body’s
• Red green colour blindness x-linked recessive individual discriminate
• Radiation e.g agents found genetic lead formation mutations
• Chernobyl long-term effects: an increased incidence in  cancer development
• Parents offspring affected trait determine autosomal dominant inheritance
• Gene vector pcr).  digestion of restriction endonuclease ligation dna
• Gene sequences dna vectors  modified centrifugation heavier components
• Gene restriction vector enzymes cut at  specific recognition
• Vector gene inserted plasmid cut with  restriction endonucleases. this
• Cells selection recombinant introduced host organism.this is called  transfection
• Egg adult removed donor diploid is  nucleus enucleated
• A  solute carrier proteins integral glycoproteins which bind undergo
• Proteins channel ions integral lipoproteins pore cross side
• Potassium pore transmembrane channels integral proteins hydrophilic ions
• Protein pump solute binding side membrane. the hydrolysis atp
• Ions cell integral protein exchanges  sodium exits potassium
• Pump sites pump.  phosphate group potassium sodium-potassium sodium
• Molecules organic non-living synthesis from  primordial inorganic simple
• Inorganic organic obtain nutrients abiotic environment convert compounds
• Hydrogen ions carbonic acid dissociates form carbonate releasing 
• Exchange segments dna homolous chromosomes p1 non-sister chromatids
• Orientation opposing poles random occurs  independently process independent
• Amylase hydrolyzed by  salivary mouth pancreatic intestines amylose
• Node sends impulse av contraction  bundle electrical sa
• Aortic atrial ventricular contraction isovolumetric pressure valve systole
• Wall thromus atheromas develop arteries reduce lumen diameter
• Clot  clotting factors activate platelets initiate localised vasoconstriction
• Pathogen phagocytic leukocytes circulate blood extravasation resposne infection 
• T h b activating cell antibodies activated  cells
• Ca neurotransmitters action potential arrives axon terminal voltage-gated
• Pcr fragments mixes normal nucleotides ddntp  generates terminating
• Enzyme-substrate conformational change formation complex specificity active site
• Plant undifferentiated shoot apex selected stock sterilized explant
• Neural form plate groove tube cells differentiate crest
• Growth filipodia expansion chemical stimulus axons cones tips
• Random sources genetic variation crossing p1 assortment m1
• Metabolism describes  sum reactions occur organism order maintain
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