AQA Biology Flashcards

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• Data criteria unpaired students t-test categorical groups independent
• Data interval measured scale unit size
• Give ways pathogen disease entered body marks produces
• Structure tests monoclonal antibodies specific knowledge protein explain
• Adult cells transcriptional factors virus genes dna introduced
• Mrna but trna paired differences structures trna marks has more nucleotides
• Produced trypsin small intestine where
• Role trypsin hydrolyses peptide bonds proteins producing smaller
• Casein protein found milk in
• +n calculate degrees freedom unpaired students t-test df=n
• Aseptic technique avoid contamination sample substances microorganisms. 
• Importance aseptic technique obtain reliable repeatable data contamination
• Calculate degrees freedom chi squared row column  number
• Calculate degrees freedom row number rows-1)x(number columns-1) 
• Chi squared greater critical reject null hypothesis
• Chi squared critical accept null hypothesis 
• Categories results criteria chi squared  data frequencies don’t
• Calculate expected frequency table  row total column total)/overall
• Chi squared difference frequencies groups 
• Pearson’s correlation coefficient find work degrees sets continuous
• Data pearson’s correlation coefficient isn’t ranked 
• Variables spearman’s rank correlation coefficient data wise involves
• Correlation coefficient equal greater critical value  significant result
• Correlation coefficient smaller critical result significant can’t reject
• Student t-test significant difference sets data
• Unpaired students t-test find difference means groups data
• Paired students t-test comparing means sets data individuals
• Groups criteria paried students t-test categorical include individuals
• Calculate degrees freedom paired students t-test df=n-1
• Transport water mass control blood importance diffusion organisms
• Energy organisms importance transfer enviroment photosynthesis ecology loss
• Responses internal enviroment heart rate importance external organism
• Ions phosphate atp protons reduced phosphorylated importance biology
• Nitrogen dna importance substances biological systems proteins enzymes
• Gene control processes cell importance organelles transport membranes
• Cell e coli cholesterol cell-surface membrane  despite maintains
• Cells cholesterol red blood suggest advantage percentage compared
• Water blood end capillary;  proteins potential plasma negative
• Pressure high tissue blood end fluid leads accumulation
• Population hunting suggest reasons show low levels genetic
• Division identify event occurrs separation sister chromatids centromere
• Hydrogen bonds explain organic bases stabilise structure dna
• Cytoplasm red blood organelles visible cells suggest filled
• Formation enzyme-substrate complex increases rate reaction explain marks
• Dna describe role named enzymes process semi-conservative replication
• Structures named correct breathing diaphragm intercostal muscles contract
• Fatty triglycerides acids phospholipids compare contrast structure properties
• Polypeptide joined describe lactose formed cell attached form
• Time methylene blue turn colourless occurs temperature optimum
• Methylation prevents cell explain tumour suppressor genes lead
• Chromatography rf practical identify pigment compare database ensure
• Factors affect rate mobility pigments chromatography affinity solubility
• Pigments affinities affect rate mobility chromatography paper lower​​
• Solubility affect rate mobility chromatography pigments soluble ​travel
• Pigments travel paper rf higher
• Dehydrogenase​​ ​enzyme ​​found plant chloroplasts crucial ​light dependent
• Role of dehydrogenase​​ ​catalyses​​ reaction this
• Redox indicator dye dcpip example
• Dcpip accepts electrons light dependant reaction
• Colour dcpip turn blue colourless
• Rate decreases light photosynthesis intensitydecreases photoionisation dependant reaction
• Dcpip electrons colour light intensity reduced released chlorophyll
• Blue methylene colour change colourless accepts protons
• Calculate rate respiration 1/mean time
• Rate reaction temperature moves optimum enzyme action decreases
• Results statistical test choice chamber experiment chi-squared observed
• Enviroment woodlice prefer darker damp
• Type movement woodlice show kinesis move favourable enviroment
• Colour change benedicts test blue brick red
• Colour solution produced depend concentration glucose sample
• Myosin atp heads calcium ions movement binding sites
• Energy atp source releases lost cell processes  give
• Ions permeable potassium sodium explain resting potential mv
• Multiple sclerosis disease parts myelin sheaths surrounding neurones
• Give location osmoreceptors body mammal hypothalamus
• Osmoreceptor water blood person dehydrated cell volume decreases
• Secretion urine stimulation osmoreceptors lead hormone adh  describe
• Creatinine breakdown product creatine found muscle tissues age
• System receptors detect rise or  baro/pressure impulses nervous
• Ii give reasons pancreas transplants treatment type diabetes
• Suggest reason dna replication stops polymerase chain reaction
• Urethra releases urine
• Suns energy plants convert organic matter
• Abiotic living features ecosystem e.g temperature
• Biotic living features ecosystem e.g food
• Niche role species habitat e.g eats
• Cardiomyocytes heart muscle cells make lot tissue
• Acetylation acetyl group transferred molecule
• Food webs complex diagram representing energy pathways ecosystem
• Light reaction main stages photosynthesis capturing energy chlorophyll
• Arrows food web represent direction energy flow
• Oxidative phosphorylation electrons,associated reduced nad fad released krebs
• Food chain describes feeding relationship producers eaten primary
• Mesophyll leaf light diffusion cells large distance short
• Thylakoids grana called stack disk structure light dependent
• Stroma fluid filled matrix synthesis sugars occurs
• Photolysis splitting water molecule hydrogen ions electrons oxygen
• Photoionization chlorophyll molecule ionized electrons excited
• Theory synthesis chemiosmotic model explain atp proposes energy
• Loss ways oxidised electrons hydrogen gain oxygen
• Gain ways reduced electrons hydrogen loss oxygen
• Light dependent reaction place thylakoid membrane
• Equation photolysis water 2h₂o→4h⁺+4e⁻+o₂ what
• Chlorophyll electrons hydrogen ions light actively protons transported
• Light independent reaction place stroma chloroplast
• Light dependant reaction proteins channels chloroplast structurally adapted
• Light reaction ribulose bisphosphate triose phosphate carbon dioxide
• Fluid stroma chloroplast light independent reaction enzymes grana
• Limiting factor limits rate process place
• Law limiting factors state moment rate physiological process
• Light rate compensation point amount intensity curve photosynthesis
• Light optimum conditions photosyntheis high intensity red blue
• Aerobic respiration oxygen produced carbon dioxide water atp
• Anaerobic respiration animals takes place absence oxygen produces
• Anaerobic respiration plants fungi takes place absense oxygen
• Glycolysis splitting 6-carbon glucose 2x 3-carbon pyruvate molecules
• Link reaction 3-carbon pyruvate molecules enter series lead
• Cycle krebs oxidation reduction reactions yield atp large
• Glucose phosphorylated phosphate atp triose glycolysis addition inorganic
• Pyruvate molecules acetate form describe link reaction produced
• Carbon molecule co₂ nadh cycle loses reduces compound
• Carbon energy production importance krebs cycle breaks macromolecules
• Electrons combine nad fad transfer chain intermembrane space
• Respiration hydrogen important oxygen final electron acceptor atoms
• Lipids glycerol fatty converted respiration hydrolysed acids phosphorylated
• Proteins amino group respiration hydrolysed acids removed process
• Describe anaerobic respiration plants microorgansism pyruvate+nadh→ethanol+co₂ +nad
• Describe anaerobic respiration animals pyruvate+nadh→lactate+nad
• Write simple equation show atp synthesised adp adp+inorganic
• Energy give ways properties atp make suitable source
• Atp synthesise amount humans body mass day explain
• Biomass total mass living material specific area time
• Bomb measure biomass calorimeter dry material weighed burnt
• Producers photosynthetic organisms manufacture organic substances light energy
• Organisms energy consumers obtain feeding sunlight directly
• Primary consumers directly eat producers
• Consumers secondary organisms eat primary
• Organisms saprobionts group break complex materials dead simple
• Saprobiotic nutrition obtaining nutrients dead organic matter extracellular
• Trophic level stage food chain
• Suns energy light photosynthesis lack converted organic matter
• Gross primary production total quantity chemical energy stored
• Net primary production chemical energy stored plant biomass
• Primary production equation net gross respiratory losses
• Energy lost low percentage transferred stage organism consumed
• Energy net production n= lost equation consumers i
• Trophic energy food chains levels proportion transferred small
• Equation percentage efficiency energy transfer transfer)*100
• Kill pests larger farmers chemical pesticides insecticides eat
• Energy methods farmed reduce respiratory losses control condition
• Mycorrhizae symbiotic relationship fungi roots plants
• Hyphae plants description fungi made long thin strands
• Nitrate ions absorbed plants active transport
• Nitrogen steps cycle fixation ammonification nitrification denitrification
• Nitrogen bacteria ammonia amino acids plant fixation gas
• Ammonification nitrogen compounds dead organisms turned ammonia saprobionts
• Ammonium ions nitrites nitrification soil changed nitrogen compounds
• Nitrates soil nitrogen denitrification converted gas denitrfying bacteria
• Phosphate ions animals plants rocks soil weathering cycle
• Guano phosphate waste product produced birds high proportion
• Nutrients crops harvested removed animals lost field mineral
• Artificial fertiliser inorganic pure chemicals powders pellets
• Natural fertilisers organic include manure composted vegetables crop
• Nutrients water leaching removed soil rainwater dissolve soluble
• Summation effect neurotransmitters released neurones added
• Algae plants die oxygen eutrophication mineral ions leached
• Trap longworth tunnel tripping mechanism nest box attached
• Robinsons moth trap mimic habitat egg cartons act
• Camera trap infra-red attached tree motion sensor starts
• Trap pitfall cheap plastic cup protruding entrance allowing
• Lux meter measure light intensity abiotic
• Chromosome long super coiled dna molecules genes dotted
• Chromosomes homologous pair size appearance genes
• Gene segment dna chromosome codes polypeptide
• Locus position gene chromosome of
• Allele form gene possible of
• Genotype alleles possessed organism the
• Phenotype organism's physical appearance visible traits
• Expression appearance characteristic due meant term phenotype marks
• Homozygous genotypes alleles gene having
• Heterozygous genotypes alleles gene having
• Allele dominant expressed heterozygous genotype
• Allele recessive expressed homozygous genotype
• Alleles co-dominant pairs affect phenotype present heterozygote expressed
• Diploid cell sets chromosomes 2n inherited parent
• Haploid genetics organism cell complete set chromosomes
• Mitosis nuclear division daughter nuclei number chromosomes parent
• Meiosis nuclear division daughter cells half number chromosomes
• Chromatids unseperated copies chromosome replicated
• Alleles multiple gene a that
• Inheritance monohybrid single gene the
• Pure breeding homozygous
• Inheritance dihybrid genes of 2
• Sex linkage gene carried x y chromosome
• Chromosomes autosomes remaining pairs sex
• Autosomal linkage genes carried autosome
• Epistasis allele gene affects masks expression phenotype
• Chi square test data categorical
• Gene pool alleles individuals population time
• Allelic frequency number times allele occurs gene pool
• Hardy weinberg principle mathematical equation calculate frequencies alleles
• Population conditions met hardy weinberg work mutations arise
• Equations hardy-weinberg p+q=1 p²+q²+2pq=1 for
• Passed combination alleles gametes random fertilisation areas genetic
• Discontinuous variation found characteristics controlled genes alleles affected
• Genes affected environment distribution continuous variation due points
• Selection pressure environmental factors limit population species
• Variation differences exist individuals that
• Individuals alleles survival beneficial selection increases pass genes
• Stabilising selection eliminate extreme phenotypes occurs environmental conditions
• Extreme directional selection results range variation selected favour
• Selection range distruptive individuals alleles extreme phenotypes end
• Species speciation development existing of
• Populations allele frequencies experience allopatric speciation geographically separated
• Speciation number chromosomes polyploidy sympatric require geographical isolation
• Individuals population develop mating examples reproductive isolation seasonal
• Allele genetic drift individuals chance populations greater show
• Habitat place organism lives the
• Population organisms species habitat all
• Community populations species habitat make
• Ecosystem community abiotic conditions area lives
• Adaptation feature members species increases chances survival reproduction
• Physiological organism's physical processes having
• Behavioural type adaptation organism survive unique conditions
• Anatomical structural features body of
• Population size total number organisms species habitat
• Carrying capacity maximum stable population size species ecosystem
• Competition populations species adapted interspecific organisms resources reduced
• Population resources competition organisms species increases space food
• Population predation organism kills eats sizes prey interlinked
• Prey population increases predators survive describe predator-prey relationship
• Random sample steps choose area avoid bias number
• Quadrat types point frame what
• Horizontal bar pin point quadrat supported legs set
• Quadrat frame square divided string wire smaller subdivisions
• Quadrat larger factors size species require number sample
• Species frequency number individuals quadrat
• Percentage cover estimate amount ground quadrat covered species
• Transect lines organisms distributed area
• Sample population caught 2nd describe mark-release-recapture method capture
• Population assumptions make mark-release-recapture marked sample time opportunity
• Succession process ecosystem time by
• Succession primary ecological begins area biotic community previously
• Succession secondary disturbance destroys community destroying soil
• Community climax ecosystem supporting largest complex plants animals
• Trna amino codon moves attaches ribosome acid attached
• Species pioneer succession grow conditions change organic matter
• Species present temperate climate due water availability mild
• Species low present polar climate water availability temperatures
• Plagioclimax stopping climax community developing artificially
• Mowing plants plagioclimax regular grass prevents shrubs trees
• Grazing animals eating growing points shrubs trees stops
• Reasons conservation personal maintain planet ethical respect living
• Conservation protection management species habitats suitable
• Plants fish species numbers development give examples conservation
• Genome complete set genes cell
• Proteome full range proteins cell produce
• Intron coding region gene a
• Exon coding region gene what
• Non-coding repeats repeating sequences dna dont code
• Dna triplet group bases codes specific amino acid
• Locus fixed point what is
• Homologous pair matching chromosomes what
• Allele forms gene is a
• Dna mrna rna contrast structures molecules give differences
• Dna histone describe stored eukaryotic cells form chromosomes
• Trna what does look like
• Dna polymerase rna mrna strands helicase attaches hydrogen
• Splicing introns eukaryotic cells transcription creates pre-mrna spliced
• H complementary describe mrna produced plant cell marks
• Rna nucleotides messenger mrna translation form polypeptides describe
• Amino acids degenerate combinations triplets coded
• Non-overlapping end triplet start the
• Chromosomes describe meiosis marks shorten/thicken/condense associate homologous/(described pairs
• Meiosis variation independent/random assortment/orientation/segregation describe explain advantage species
• Homologous chromosomes carry genes genetically identical explain chromatids
• Chromosomes meiosis haploid number combination results cells show
• Chromosomes homologous nuclear envelope move opposite poles leading
• Homologous chromosomes nuclear envelope move opposite spindle chromatids
• Explain chromosome number halved meiosis marks homologous pair
• Crossing increases genetic greatly diversity species moss describe
• Independent segregation explain leads genetic variation means homologous
• Variation sexual reproduction random egg daughter cells released
• Chromosomal non-disjunction chromosomes anaphase chromatids prophase separate causing
• Mutation change base sequence dna
• Mutation substitution base substituted e.g atgcct attcct g
• Mutation base deletion deleted shift triplets
• Amino change code acid substitution mutation affect due
• Substitution mutation affect protein functioning area e.g enzymes
• Chromosomes equation number combinations daughter cell 2ⁿ n
• Chromosomes equation number combinations fertilisation 2ⁿ)² n =number
• Genetic diversity total number alleles population
• Meant genetic diversity mark number alleles gene
• Definition species group organisms produce fertile offspring
• Species definition richness number community
• Definition population group individuals species live place interbreed
• Population genetic diversity increased mutation leading formation alleles
• Genetic bottleneck event big reduction population
• Genetic effects bottleneck number alleles gene pool reduces
• Population genetic bottleneck northern elephant seals hunted humans
• Founders effect organisms population start colony small amount
• Allele effects founders frequency rare original population common
• Amish population genetic founders effect descended small number
• Alleles selection advantageous explain process evolution natural variety
• Adaptations organism increase chances e.g body survival leads
• Directional selection individuals alleles characteristic extreme type survive
• Stabilizing selection individuals alleles characteristics middle range survive
• Technique aseptic prevent contamination cultures microorganisms
• Phylogeny study evolutionary history groups organisms shows relationships
• Phylogenetic tree what does a
• Taxonomy naming organisation organisms groups
• Domains eukarya bacteria archaea what
• Single features bacteria celled prokaryotes membrane bound organelles
• Features archaea group single-celled prokaryotes membranes fatty acid
• Features eukarya group organisms made eukaryotic cells possess
• Order domain level groups starting kingdom phylum class
• Part binomial system genus capital letter species begin
• Courtship behaviour behavior species select partners reproduction
• Species courtship behaviour specific member respond allowing recognise
• Offspring produced maximum chance breeding mating survival courtship
• Artificial classification divide organisms differences time
• Groups phylogenetic classification based evolutionary relationships organisms ancestors
• Species number diversity individuals community
• Ecosystem diversity range habitats small local earth
• Examples things remove habitats reduce species diversity removal
• Indirect examples practise remove habitats reduce species diversity
• Plant create fertilisers examples conservation techniques maintaining hedgerows
• Morphology method pros cons comparison structural features related
• Immunology precipitate closely related method pros cons examining
• Amino sequence acids method protein(amino pros cons compare
• Dna hydrogen bonds method hybridisation pros cons mixing
• Mrna sequence method pros cons compare proteins cytoplasm
• Sequences dna method pros cons compare nucleotide genome
• Standard deviation means show larger lot variety whilst
• Forest fewer cleared decrease variety food make land
• Meant hierarchy groups overlap what
• Meant phylogenetic group grouped evolutionary links/history/relationships common ancestry
• Function cytoplasm enzymes needed break waste aid metabolic
• Base code amino comparing sequence acid genes evolutionary
• Equation sa sphere 4πr² what
• Equation volume sphere 4/3)πr³ what
• Equation volume cylinder πr²h what
• Equation surface area cyclinder 2πr²+h(2πr
• Multi-cellular organisms transport system low sa:volume ratio diffusion
• Small mammals high metabolic rate compared large generate
• Things exchange surfaces common large area thin short
• Concentration fish water gill filaments surface area diffusion
• Blood water oxygen diffusion concentration replaces describe explain
• Oxygen concentration higher surface water air close seabed
• Called trachea insects exchange gases air-filled pipes air
• Function stomata open close exchange gases
• Dioxide air describe carbon leaf reaches mesophyll cells
• Water loss spiracles adaptations insects minimise close lose
• Stomata moist air reduced adaptations xerophytic plants sunken
• Alveoli describe features lungs make effective organs exchange
• Alveoli shorten diffusion lungs prevents due air mucus
• Alveoli provide large surface accept capillaries area fast
• Gradient describe oxygen air reaches capillaries surrounding alveoli
• Intercostal muscles increasing thorax volume pressure stages inspiration
• Pressure intercostal muscles thorax decreased stages expiration external
• Blood capillaries red cells pulmonary diffusion alveolar alveoli
• Volume definition tidal air breath
• Definition ventilation rate number breaths minute
• Volume forced expiratory maximum air breathed
• Forced vital capacity maximum volume air breathed lungs
• Lungs tubercles tidal volume pulmonary tuberculosis affect immune
• Lungs fibrosis scar tissue affect formation thicker elastic
• Reduced asthma affect lungs airways inflamed irritated smooth
• Alveoli air surface area volume emphysema affect lungs
• Alveoli decreases loss explain effects elasticity gaseous exchange
• Endopeptidases hydrolyze peptide bond protein e.g trypsin chymotrypsin
• Exopeptidases hydrolyze end peptide bonds e.g dipeptidases separate
• Exopeptidases bonds suggest explain combined actions endopeptidases efficient
• Peptide amino acids describe proteins digested human gut
• Diffusion increase surface area properties villi thin-walled decrease
• Fatty form monoglycerides acids triglycerides formed lipids hydrolyzed
• Protein describe role played rough endoplasmic reticulum formation
• Explain advantages lipid droplet micelle formation increase surface
• Amylase produced salivary glands pancreas
• Disaccharidases membrane bound membrane-bound enzymes cell epithelial ileum
• Glucose galactose transported co-transporter proteins
• Fructose transported facilitated diffusion how
• Lipase produced enzyme pancreas released small intestine
• Amino acids transported co-transporter proteins
• Artery wall stretch high pressure structural features elastic
• Flow valve explain ways structure aorta related function
• Blood structural features vein wider lumen elastic muscular
• Structural features capillary cell thick short diffusion distance
• Fluid tissue capillary hydrostatic pressure venule end water
• Blood explain role heart formation tissue fluid marks
• Blockage lymphatic lymphoedema swelling legs caused system suggest
• Pressure atria ventricles blood valves increased pulmonary contract
• Blood cells pressure white form plaque describe steps
• Aneurysm atheroma arteries blood layer describe plaque damages
• Rupture form blood describe thrombosis atheroma plaque endothelium
• Heart muscle describe myocardial infarction coronary artery blocked
• Function ribosomes site protein synthesis 80s-found eukaryotic nm
• Myosin heads filaments globular hinged move back
• Water leaf molecules transpiration evaporation diffusion mesophyll cells
• Mass sugars water describe flow hypothesis mechanism translocation
• Sieve tubes water inside companion cells potential decreased
• Removed bulge ring fluid stops supporting evidence mass
• Mass flow evidence sugar travels sinks sieve plates
• Radioactive carbon form plant describe process autoradiography sugar
• Water definition transpiration evaporation plants surface evaporates moist
• Air bubble water meniscus what
• Blue dissect plants scalpel cut cross section thin
• Translocation movement solutes source sink
• Concentration gradient sink source maintains solutes enzymes changing
• Oxygen dissociation curve haemoglobin shifts vigorous exercise explain
• Nuclear function envelope double membrane outer connected endoplasmic
• Function nuclear pores passage large molecules nucleus
• Function nucleoplasm jelly material makes nucleus
• Function nucleolus spherical region nucleoplasm creates ribosomal rna
• Membrane function cristae double control entry exit materials
• Function matrix protein lipids ribosomes dna mitochondrion control
• Material function lysosomes hydrolyse ingested phagocytic cells release
• Surface function rough endoplasmic reticulum ribosomes large area
• Store function smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesise transport lipids
• Cell function membrane surrounds forms boundary cytoplasm environment
• Golgi proteins lipids cell carbohydrates form function apparatus
• Chloroplast stage photosynthesis called thylakoids grana occurs fluid
• Cell walls function thin layer called middle lamella
• Cell walls consist microfibrils polysaccharide cellulose
• Function cell vacuole support herbaceous parts plants sugar
• Cell vacuole plant description sap found cytoplasm membrane
• Cell wall bacteria made murein(glycoprotein
• Function flagellum rotates prokaryotic cell move
• Dna circular floats cytoplasm long coiled histone protein
• Plasmids small loops dna genes survival antibiotic resistance
• Function capsule protect bacteria attacks immune system
• Cell differentiation specialized cellular process type
• Dna replicate process binary fission bacteria replicating circular
• Function rna molecule virus carries genetic information make
• Water add steps prepare temporary mount pipette small
• Cell steps interphase g1 grows organelles proteins made
• Chromosomes nuclear envelope move opposite spindle chromatids steps
• Root tip squash boiling tube place water tissue
• Growth ignore cells repair genetically identical mitosis important
• Cells root tip region mitosis/cell division occurs
• Firmly squash root tip light make tissue layer
• Fluid mosaic phospholipid part marks model states membranes
• Fluid mosaic molecules structure plasma membrane explain marks
• Cholesterol membrane binds hydrophobic tails phospholipids restricts movement
• Concentration area definition diffusion net movement molecules high
• Molecules charged proteins facilitated diffusion water soluble large
• Concentration factors affecting simple diffusion gradient larger faster
• Factors affecting facilitated diffusion concentration gradient number channel
• Aquaporins water special channel proteins facilitated diffusion cell
• Water hypotonic moves cell potential greater inside
• Water hypertonic moves cell potential greater inside
• Isotonic water potential same
• Water area potential definition osmosis net movement molecules
• Factors affecting rate osmosis water potential gradient thickness
• 5cm³ solution add testube prepare serial dilution start
• Solution concentration mol start volume make scale factors
• Active transport concentration carrier proteins move molecules membrane
• Molecules co-transport cotransporters type carrier proteins bind simultaneously
• Rate carrier proteins factors affecting active transport speed
• Facilitated diffusion active transport involves carrier concentration contrast
• Pieces beetroot add water describe experiment permeability cell
• Potato cylinders mass find water potential weigh sucrose
• Glucose sodium concentration lumen epithelial move gradient absorbed
• Stages cell cycle interphase nuclear division cytokinesis
• Functions proteins cell membrane enzymes antigens/cell recognition/cell markers
• Functions glycolipids act recognition sites maintain stability membrane
• Cells functions glycoproteins recognise act recognition sites attach
• Equation magnification size image)/(size object
• Mm standard form what is
• Um standard form what is
• Nm standard form what is
• Pm standard form what is
• Cell fractionation process broken separated
• Organelle change cells cold buffered isotonic solution reduces
• Stages cell fractionation homogenation ultracentrifugation
• Cells homogenization work broken homogeniser release organelles homogenate
• Centrifuge ultracentrifugation work fragments homogenate seperated spun high
• Order cell organelles heaviest lightest nucleus chloroplast endoplasmic
• Light lens passes areas apear microscope work condenser
• Maximum magnification light microscope x1500
• Maximum resolution light microscope 200nm
• Microscope advantages light cheap small portable easy preparation
• Disadvantages light microscope magnification limited x1500 preparation distort
• Electrons surface specimen scanning microscope work beam passes
• Maximum magnification scanning electron microscope x30,000
• Maximum resolution scanning electron microscope 10nm
• Electron microscope images advantages scanning resolution sem>light due
• Disadvantages scanning electron microscopes observe live specimens system
• Specimen transmission electron microscope work beam passes detected
• Microscopes electron advantages tem greater resolution light form
• Disadvantages tem observe live specimen colour greyscale flat
• Maximum magnification tem x500,000 what
• Maximum resolution tem 0.2nm what
• Definition resolving power ability microscope differentiate close objects
• Eyepiece graticule describe student determine diameter stomata marks
• Antigen protein molecule/glycoprotein surface cell/microorganism stimulates immune response/production
• Pathogen phagocyte antigen surface describe steps phagocytosis recognizes
• Cytotoxic t cells produce perforin makes holes pathogens
• Response immune cellular t-cells system cells interacting e.g
• Humoral response b-cells clonal selection production monoclonal antibodies
• B cells antigen lymphocytes produce plasma steps humoral
• Specific antibody antigen unique depends variable regions forms
• Primary response b describe immune antigen enters body
• Immune response quicker describe secondary pathogen primary enters
• Cells clump phagocyte antibody lead destruction antigen agglutination
• Antibodies passive immunity caused introduction individuals direct contact
• Give natural artificial passive immunity breast milk antibodies
• Immunity active produce stimulating immune response stimulates production
• Give natural artificial active immunity due individual infected
• Vaccination response work attenuated weakened pathogen antigen aim
• Vaccination side features successful programme economically large quantities
• Population herd immunity occurs large proportion vaccinated makes
• Immunity immune system pathogen vaccine varieties vaccinations eliminate
• Risk vaccine vaccinations acceptable disease ethical issues test
• Antibodies monoclonal mono-specific identical produced type immune cell
• Structure cellulose related function marks β-glucose monomers arranged
• Deacetylation acetyl group removed molecule
• Monoclonal antibodies cancer drugs attach cell bind tumour
• Antibodies mobile hcg line test blue specific present
• Describe structure virus of
• Reverse transcriptase hiv called retrovirus catalyses production dna
• Cell dna viral hiv complementary host proteins describe
• Dna viral cell makes describe viruses produced hiv
• Hiv helper t cells aids person immune system
• Direct elisa test single antibody complementary antigen testing
• Indirect elisa test antibodies what
• Antibody monoclonal antigen complementary wash add enzyme describe
• Cell antibiotics viruses metabolic ineffective viral diseases aids
• Antigens found surface influenza neuraminidase haemagglutinin
• Monomer smaller units larger molecules made
• Polymer molecules made larger number monomers joined
• Energy identify carbohydrates organisms marks respiratory substrates stores
• Scientific term carbohydrate monomer mark monosaccharide
• Condensation reaction mark monomers bonded removal molecule water
• Reaction hydrolysis breaks chemical bond molecules involves water
• Bond condensation reaction monosaccharides produce glycosidic
• Sucrose= glucose fructose +
• Lactose= glucose galactose +
• Glucose maltose= +
• Shape alpha glucose of
• Shape beta glucose of
• Stored glucose human body glycogen liver/muscles
• Explain cellulose molecules adapted function plant cells marks
• Test reducing sugar sample solution benedict's reagent added
• Test add reducing sugar hcl heat sodium hydrogen
• Structure amylose long unbranched straight chain alpha-glucose angles
• Enzyme structure amylopectin branched polymer maximum surface area
• Starch test add iodine dissolves potassium iodide solution
• Structure glycogen side branches amylopectin meaning stored glucose
• Cellulose glycogen molecule made straight chain glycosidic describe
• Branched coiled describe explain features starch make good
• Starch molecule cellulose formed explain difference structure marks
• Molecules starch plant cells adapted cellulose functions explain
• Shape glycerol of
• Bond formed condensation reaction glycerol fatty acid ester
• Insulation identify lipids animals marks storage fat hormones
• Oil unsaturated fats found specific marks olive vegetable
• Boiling presence double bond lipid affect point mark
• Saturated double bond what is
• Unsaturated double bond what is
• Benefits triglycerides long hydrocarbon tails lots chemical energy
• Saturated fatty describe acid differs molecular structure unsaturated
• Bond forms amino acids condensation reaction peptide
• Shape amino acid of
• Describe significance r group marks variable amino acid
• Chain describe primary structure protein marks amino acids
• Forms secondary protein structure marks alpha helix beta
• Describe quaternary protein structure marks polypeptide joined form
• Indoleacetic acid iaa auxin produced tips shoot flowering
• Structure amino acids bonds folding polypeptide due hydrogen
• Identify globular protein haemoglobin myoglobin antibodies hormones
• Identify fibrous protein keratin collagen elastin troponin myosin
• Emulsion describe test add ethanol sample solid grind
• Add solution protein present describe biuret test sodium
• Activation energy enzyme meant presence affect marks minimum
• Enzymes globular proteins terms quaternary structure marks multiple
• Tertiary structure specific shape active site maltase essential
• Maltose enzyme active site substrate hydrolysed maltase explain
• Active substrate induced fit model site enzyme action
• Active site substrate describe induced-fit model enzyme action
• Enzyme concentration increase affect activity excess substrate leads
• Substrate concentration enzyme increasing molecules number affect activity
• Enzyme temperature increase molecules substrate complexes form affect
• Ph enzyme change active site substrate affect activity
• Substrate competitive inhibitor molecule similar shape form enzymes
• Enzyme substrate site active non-competitive inhibition molecule attach
• Water high heat strong cohesion surface properties metabolic
• Dna stable molecule phosphodiester organic hydrogen cystine guanine
• Nucleotide shape
• Bond consecutive nucleotides phosphodiester what
• Adenine pairs thymine with
• Cytosine pair guanine with
• Hydrogen bonds cytosine guanine how
• Hydrogen bonds adenine thymine how
• Dna separate strands large genetic adapted carry function
• Rna ribose sugar organic base:adenine uracil,cytosine guanine phosphate
• Shape atp of
• Activation phosphate atp metabolic processes build macromolecules starch
• Phosphate plant animal cells phosphorylation ways molecule added
• Atp describe resynthesised cells marks adp phosphate synthase
• Give ways hydrolysis atp cells marks provide energy
• Dna describe steps replication helicase breaks h-bonds causing
• Dna heavy nitrogen light bacteria grown centrifuged strand
• Genome entire set dna including genes organism
• Proteome proteins made organism all
• Role regulatory genes determine codes proteins switched
• Dna recombinant technology transferring fragment organism
• Organism transgenic transferred dna that
• Dna ligase enzyme chemically links fragments
• Stage dna gene host vector cells recombinant technology
• Dna reverse transcriptase mrna produce fragment templates make
• Restriction endonucleases enzymes recognise specific palindromic sequences cut
• Distances iaa transported diffusion active transport short phloem
• Dna restriction endonucleases sequences cut recognition fragment specific
• Sticky ends small trails unpaired bases fragment
• Type produces ends restriction endonucleases blunt sticky
• Sticky ends importance exposed bases gene pair bit
• Oligonucleotides small overlapping single strands nucleotides
• Gene dna sequence desired determined complementary computer oligonucleotides
• Plasmids small loops dna found addition large circular
• Dna vector sticky ends fragment insertion cut open
• Dna recombinant produced combining sources
• Cells host vector gene plasmids transformation inserting suitable
• Cells gene marker host cloned agar transformed grown
• Vivo cloning copies dna fragment made inside living
• Promoter dna terminator host protein fragment wont addition
• Promoter regions dna sequences enzyme rna polymerase start
• Terminator regions rna polymerase stop producing mrna
• Vitro cloning copies dna fragments made living organism
• Dna mixture polymerase degrees strands pcr reaction free
• Crops transformed recombinant dna technology agriculture give higher
• Vitamin gene produce recombinant dna technology agriculture golden
• Iaa phototrophism shoots concentration increases shaded side cells
• Recombinant dna plant crop genetically concerns technology agriculture
• Produced recombinant dna technology industry industrial processes biological
• Technology companies concerns recombinant dna industry increases multinational
• Recombinant dna technology medicine drugs vaccines produced transformed
• Insulin recombinant dna technology medicine treat type diabetes
• Technology concerns recombinant dna medicine companies genetic engineering
• Humanitarian benefits recombinant dna technology agriculturally reduce risk
• Somatic therapy altering alleles body cells affected disorder
• Therapy germ line involves altering alleles sex cells
• Dna probes short strands specific base sequence complementary
• Dna probe alleles hybridisation bind target present sample
• Common types dna probe labels radioactive fluorescent
• Dna fragments separated membrane probe present process sample
• Dna microarray glass slide microscopic spots probes attached
• Dna labelled array human process microarray sample fluorescently
• Identify screening dna probes inherited conditions patient respond
• Genetic advising counselling patients relative risks disorders involves
• Number sequences variable tandem repeats base code proteins
• Dna fragments fingerprints genetic repeats number viewed uv
• Iaa phototrophism roots concentration increase shaded side growth
• Iaa gravitotropism,shoots concentration increases lower side cells elongate
• Adrenaline released adrenal glands where
• Genetic determining bands match fingerprint people number genetically
• Stimulus change internal external environment
• Receptor detect stimulus-they cells proteins surface membranes
• Effectors cells bring response stimulus produce effect
• Types neurones sensory motor relay
• Sensory neurone transmit electrical impulses receptors central nervous
• Motor neurone transmit electrical impulses cns effectors
• Neurones relay transmit electrical impulses sensory motor
• Impulses electrical nerve action potential
• Neurone electrical impulse information sends stages response carried
• Central nervous system made brain spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system made neurones connect cns rest
• Systems peripheral nervous somatic autonomic
• Somatic nervous system controls conscious activities e.g running
• Autonomic nervous system controls unconscious activities e.g digestion
• Sympathetic nervous system body ready action flight fight
• Parasympathetic nervous system calms body rest digest
• Reflex body responds stimulus making conscious decision
• Simple reflexes organisms protect body rapid spend time
• Sense plants direction light grow flowering increase chances
• Trophism response plant directional stimulus
• Stimulus directional coming direction a
• Plants respond stimuli regulate growth
• Positive trophism growth stimulus toward
• Negative trophism growth stimulus away
• Phototrophism growth plant response light
• Shoot phototrophism positively phototropic grow light
• Root phototrophism negatively phototropic grow light
• Gravitrophism growth plant response gravity
• Shoots gravitropism negatively gravitrophic grow upwards
• Roots gravitropism positive gravitrophic grow
• Plants respond directional stimuli specific growth factors
• Growth factors hormone chemicals speed slow plant
• Growth factors produced growing regions plant(shoot tips,leaves move
• Growth auxins factor stimulate shoots cell elongation
• Cell elongation walls loose stretch longer
• Iaa gravitotropism,roots concentration increases lower side growth inhibited
• Tactic responses taxes organism moves directional stimulus e.g
• Kinetic responses kineses organisms movement affected non-directional stimulus
• Choice chamber container compartments create environmental conditions
• Chamber paper side choice investigate cover lid place
• Receptors describes specific detect stimulus
• Potential resting difference cell rest
• Potential generator change difference due stimulus
• Potential difference cell change stimulus detected membrane excited
• Mechanoreceptors detect mechanical stimuli e.g pressure vibrations
• Pacinian corpuscles type mechanoreceptors of
• Layer connective tissue sensory nerve ending lamellae
• Sensory cell sodium pacianian corpuscle stimulated lamellae deformed
• Sodium generator potential pacinian corpuscle sensory cell stretch
• Amount light enters eye controlled muscles iris controls
• Light rays focused eye retina
• Retina photoreceptor cells what does
• Fovea area retina lots photoreceptors
• Impulses photoreceptors carried retina brain optic nerve
• Blind spot optic nerve leaves eye photoreceptors cell
• Light eye photoreceptors nerve bipolar process entering enters
• Types photoreceptors human eye rods cones
• Rods give light action potentials join found peripheral
• Cones action points give potential joins neurone light
• Myogenic contract relax receiving signals nerves
• Electrical sinoatrial node san sets rhythm heartbeat sending
• Function kidney filters blood forms urine
• Controlled rate san fires unconsciously part brain called
• Atrioventricular node responsible passing waves electrical activity bundle
• Delay avn reacts make atria emptied ventricles contract
• Bundle group muscle fibres heart responsible conducting waves
• Electrical activity left waves node san atria contract
• Pressure baraoreceptor receptors aorta carotid arteries stimulated high
• Chemoreceptors chemical receptors aorta arteries medulla monitor oxygen
• Blood pressure impulses high detected baroreceptors medulla sends
• Blood pressure low detected baroreceptors impuses medulla sends
• High oxygen carbon ph impulses blood low dioxide
• Low oxygen carbon ph impulses blood high dioxide
• Resting state neurone membrane positively charged compared inside
• Membrane polarised difference charge in
• Resting potential voltage 70mv
• Potassium resting potential created maintained sodium pumps ion
• Sodium potassium pump ions neurone active transport moved
• Potassium ion channel facilitated diffusion neurone concentration gradient
• Impermeable permeable ions diffuse membrane potassium neurone sodium
• Sodium ions created diffused neurone electrochemical gradient positive
• Sodium neurone stimulus membrane ion action potential formation
• Potential sodium depolarisation action formation difference reaches threshold
• Potassium potential ion channels membrane repolarisation action formation
• Potential potassium hyperpolarisation action formation ion channels slow
• Potential resting membrane action formation ion channels reset
• Potential order events action formation stimulus depolarisation repolarisation
• Function ureter carries urine bladder
• Sodium wave depolarisation ions diffuse region enter neurone
• Refractory period produced type impulses discrete
• Refractory period ion channels recovering opened time delay
• Action potentials impulses reasons refractory period overlap pass
• Unidirectional travel direction only in
• Action potential fire threshold bigger all-or-nothing nature reached
• Myelin sheath made schwann cell
• Schwann cells nodes ranvier what
• Nodes ranvier tiny patches bare membrane concentrated sodium
• Occurs node ranvier myelinated neurone depolarisation 
• Node saltatory conduction neurones cytoplasm conducts electrical charge
• Impulse travel non-myelinated neurone length axon membrane
• Saltatory conduction node method impulses faster axon membrane
• Factors affect speed conduction action potential myelination axon
• Conduction myelination affect speed action potentials saltatory faster
• Axon diameter affect speed conduction action potentials bigger
• Temperature speed affect conduction action potentials increases ions
• Neurone synapse junction effector between
• Synaptic cleft tiny gap cells synpase
• Neurone presynaptic synpase  before
• Synpatic knob synaptic vesicles filled chemicals called neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitters action potential neurone cleft postsynaptic receptors stages
• Synapses acetylcholine called cholinergic what
• Synaptic presynaptic acetylcholine membrane action potential knob neurone
• Enzyme breaks acetylcholine acetylcholinesterase that
• Excitatory neurotransmitters depolarise postsynaptic membrane make fire action
• Potential inhibitory neurotransmitters hyperpolarise postsynaptic neurone make difference
• Neurone reach spatial summation connect small amount neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitters inhibitory occurs released spatial summation total effect
• Temporal summation nerve impulses arrive quick succesion presynaptic
• Neuromuscular junction synapse motor neurone muscle cell
• Cholinergic receptor acetylcholine bind to  nicotinic
• Folds postsynaptic membrane acetylcholinesterase the
• Neuromuscular junction cholinergic synapse acetycholine excitatory difference aceylcholine
• Agonists shape neurotransmitters mimic action receptors activated
• Receptors activated antagonist block neurotransmitters fewer
• Neurotransmitters inhibition enzymes break synaptic cleft bind receptors
• Receptors drugs neurotransmitters activated action fewer inhibit release
• Explain triglycerides considered polymers mark made monomers/many repeating
• Substrate active explain shape enzyme molecule related function
• Saturated fatty acid describe differs molecular structure unsaturated
• Active site;  explain effect non-competitive inhibitor attaches enzyme
• Substances formed amino acid molecules join di)peptide water
• Type bond formed joined pair amino acid molecules
• Structure explain change primary globular protein result three-dimensional
• Active inhibitors shape site;  explain affect rate enzyme-controlled
• Membrane substances pass proteins describe structure plasma explain
• Explain heating enzyme leads denatured marks kinetic energy
• Describe biochemical test show solution contained protein marks
• Give biologically important polymer starch protein mark cellulose
• Decrease temperature molecules kinetic energy solution explain rate
• Active site structure specific fit knowledge protein explain
• Solution sucrose mix equal volumes boil water bath
• Don’t lipids storage molecules 4marks dissolve water/body fluids/ 
• Rna state ways differs dna marks)  uracil thymine
• Molecule suggest advantage glycogen branched marks ends/exposed/terminal glucose
• Substrate competitive non-competitive inhibitors similar bind effect reversed
• Enzyme active explain increase concentration rate reaction marks
• State functions proteins plasma membrane marks transport receptors/recognition
• Eukaryotes prokaryotic cells eukaryotic nuclear prokaryotes walls list
• Enzymes main functions lysosomes marks digestive/hydrolytic  eg protease/peroxidase/acid
• Describe role golgi body forming lysosomes marks receives
• Electron microscope explain shows detail cell structure light
• Idea explain structure membrane fluid-mosaic marks)  molecules/named molecules
• Tropomyosin found actin filaments helps myofilaments move past
• Resting muscle actin-myosin binding site blocked tropomyosin myofilaments
• Substances proteins bilayer water facilitated explain features plasma
• Present cells structures eukaryotic prokaryotes marks nucleus nuclear
• Chloroplasts pellet speed describe sample consisting obtained homogenised
• Microscopes investigate cell structure tem scientists optical transmission
• Tissue mark group similar/identical cells/cells common origin
• Give advantage dna molecules strands mark stability protects
• Strands dna bonds describe explain structure results accurate
• Dna strand explain replication semi-conservative marks copied/acts template
• Phase cell cycle dna replication occurs interphase/s
• Muscle skeletal type move of
• Skeletal muscles joined bone tendons
• Bones attach ligaments  how do
• Antagonistic pair muscles work move bone
• Muscle fibres large bundle long cells
• Cell sarcolemma membrane muscle fibre
• Transverse tubules bits sarcolemma fold inwards muscle fibre
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum network internal membranes store releases calcium
• Multinucleate nuclei contain many
• Myofibrils bundles thick thin myofilaments move past make
• Protein thick myofilaments made myosin
• Protein thin myofilaments made of  actin
• I bands thin actin filaments
• Filaments bands thick myosin overlapping thin actin
• Z line ends sarcomere of
• H zone myosin filaments only
• Middle m-line sarcomere myosin filaments
• Shorter sarcomere contracted band stay length i-band h-zone
• Binding site actin-myosin actin myosin heads
• Myosin head calcium ions actin-myosin muscle actin cross
• Binding occurs excitation stops muscle contraction calcium ions
• Atp muscle contraction movement myosin heads reabsorption calcium
• Respiration methods atp generation muscles aerobic anaerobic atp-phosphocreatine
• Generation atp aerobic respiration oxidative phosphorylation mitochondria presence
• Anaerobic respiration glycolysis end product:pyruvate converted lactate  lactate
• Atp pcr quickly generation atp-phosphocreatine pcr)system made phosphorylating
• Alactic form lactate doesn't any
• Slowly aerobic respiration slow twitch muscle fibres contract
• Quickly fast twitch muscle fibres contract good short
• Mutation change base sequence dna
• Rate mutations increased mutagenic agents
• Substitution mutation bases swapped one
• Deletion mutation bases removed one
• Addition mutation bases added one
• Duplication mutation bases repeated e.g atgcct atgcccct
• Inversion mutation sequence bases reversed e.g atgcct accgtt
• Movement chromosome translocation mutation sequence bases moved location
• Disorders genetic inherited abnormal genes chromosomes
• Amino mutation lead change acid sequence polypeptide degenerate
• Mutations change amino acid sequence polypeptide addition duplication
• Change deletion,addition duplication mutation amino acid sequence number
• Gene mutations arise dna replication
• Radiation examples mutagenic agents ultraviolet ionising chemicals viruses
• Mutations acquired occur individual cells fertilisation
• Occurs cell divides uncontrollably tumour formed
• Cell division uncontrollable occur mutation genes control
• Tumour mass abnormal cells  of
• Tumour suppresor gene normal activity slow cell division
• Tumour suppressor gene mutation protein produced cells divide
• Mutated proto-onocogene oncogene name for
• Normal function proto-oncogene stimulate cell division producing proteins
• Mutated function proto-oncogenes genes overactive stimulation cells divide
• Malignant tumour cancerous grow rapidly invade destroy surrounding
• Benign tumour cancerous slower growth covered fibrous tissue
• Cells apperance tumour compared normal irregular shape nucleus
• Methylation  adding methyl group ch
• Gene importance methylation dna regulates expression control transcribed
• Hypermethylation methylation too much
• Hypomethylation methylation too little
• Genes tumour suppresor hypermethylation transcribes proteins produce slow
• Hypomethylation proto-oncogenes act oncogenes increasing production proteins encourage
• Increased oestrogen breast cancer exposure extended period time
• Cells oestrogen breast cancerous increases mutations chances increased
• Cancer specific genetic factors linked inherited alleles inheriting
• Enviromental factors cancer exposure radation lifestyle choices smoking
• Cancer mutation prevention specific causing screen person's dna
• Cancer alleles treatment cure drugs developed treat specific
• Cells stem unspecialised develop types
• Stem cells found embryo adult tissue
• Stem cells totipotent mature type body organism
• Totipotent stem cells found present mammals divisions embryo
• Pluripotent stem cells found embryos differentiate type
• Cells multipotent stem found adults differentiate limited number
• Stem cells unipotent differentiate single type derived mutipotent
• Stem cells specialised gene development transcribes translated correect
• Red blood cells made type stem found bone
• Bone marrow transplants replace faulty patients produce abnormal
• Bone marrow stem cells specialised form type blood
• Heart conditions stem cells treat disease spinal cord
• Adult stem cells obtained body tissues simple operation
• Cells stem embryonic obtained embryos early stage development
• Cells stem pluripotent genes induced created lab produced
• Cells stem embryo adult ethical issues embryonic procedure
• Transcription factors protein molecules control genes
• Transcription activator factor stimulate increase rate e.g rna
• Transcription decrease rate repressors factor inhibit e.g bind
• Transcription general process factor binding move cytoplasm nucleus
• Target gene control expression the
• Target gene complex oestrogen transcription binds method initiating
• Rna interference small double stranded molecules stop mrna
• Molecules involved rnai sirna mirna
• Rnai small lengths non-coding rna
• Sirna mrna proteins target base sequence fragments method
• Mrna target mirna mammals complementary specific sirna molecule
• Epigenetic control determine gene switched
• Epigenetic markers chemical groups removed added
• Dont epigenetic markers alter base sequence dna
• Epigenetic markers alter easy enzymes proteins needed transcription,to
• Epigenetic marks dna generations removed escape removal process
• Epigenetics enviromental factors heritable gene function changing base
• Epigenome chemical tags form layer dna histones
• Epigenome determines shape dna-histone complex
• Dna deacetylation increases histones positive charge attraction phosphate
• Methylation addition methyl group molecule
• Dna methylation methyl group added cytosine bases inhibits
• Transcription factors dna ways gene inhibited increased methylation
• Drugs treat diseases epigenetic methylation reversible combat caused
• Twins due studies determine phenotype identical influence genetic
• Diffusion explain advantage biconcave disc spherical cell volume
• Diaphragm air describe part played causing enter lungs
• Secretions enzymes involved carbohydrate digestion saliva/pancreatic juice/intestinal juice
• Meant term assimilation utilisation body absorbed foods respiratory
• Products surface absorption;  explain structure villus aids absorption
• Digested glucose absorption absorbed outline process carbohydrate digestion
• Intercostal diaphragm mucles pressure reference muscles ribs describe
• List features large surface area required efficient respiratory
• Surface efficient describe respiratory mammals suited gas exchange
• Exchange atmosphere ref gaseous important leaf photosynthesis occurs
• Gas large surface number mesophyll cells exchange areas
• Oxygen red blood gradient describe mechanism passes alveolar
• Intercostal muscles diaphragm describe muscular actions movements inspiration
• Atp absorption galactose small intestine reduced absorbing cells
• Describe role enzymes digestive system complete breakdown starch
• Sodium epithelial glucose moves cell blood maintaining concentration
• Carrier produce active proteins sodium ions epithelial cells
• Contraction muscles describe air lungs marks diaphragm flattens
• Describe path oxygen alveolus blood marks alveolar epithelium; 
• Water cell high low concentration active substances surface
• Describe adaptations structure alveoli efficient gas exchange thin
• Oxygen large maintain gradient water explain ventilation mechanism
• Water temperature amount oxygen rise decreases dissolved rate
• Young fish hatched species mm long explain oxygen
• Mouth pressure operculum/opercular valve floor water decreased increased
• Type blood vessel elastic tissue wall mark artery
• Blood increase volume ventricle elastic tissue smooth flow
• Bladder stores urine
• Alveoli provide walls efficient large surface area;  short
• Lamellae large diffusion explain structure gill makes oxygen
• Oxygen diffusion water dissolved flows gill opposite direction
• Fish water volume pressure opercular describe gills ventilated
• Flow water one-way fish gills two-way air lungs
• Meant term partial pressure marks measure concentration gas
• Describe features fish gills give large surface area. 
• Oxygen explain concentration tracheae fall spiracles closed marks
• Describe single-celled organisms exchange respiratory gases.  mark diffusion
• Insect oxygen air tracheae;  cells;  lives describe obtain
• Water blood fish gills oxygen concentration oxygen;  replaces
• Gas exchange fish takes place gills explain features
• Oxygen high p.o2 explain loaded transported unloaded blood
• Leaf organ group tissues a
• Air oxygen enters abdominal pumping increases efficiency gas
• Tissue water fluid circulatory blood molecules reject potential
• Water arterial explain net loss capillary end marks
• Volume fluid total passes capillaries surrounding tissue greater
• Tissue fluid accumulates people eat protein explain marks
• Elastic tissue blood describe advantage wall artery marks
• Atp phloem high rate tissue roots explain marks
• Water blood hp idea higher wp describe explain
• Pressure explain structure arteries reduces fluctuations marks elastic
• Diffusion rate explain structure capillaries related function.  marks
• Elastic muscle reduces explain structures walls arteries arterioles
• Haemoglobin organism chemical structure describe mark primary structure/amino
• Aorta wall ventricle heart pressure relaxes thickness time
• Water fluid pressure capillary blood;  describe tissue formed
• Maximum pressure left ventricle higher difference mark thicker
• Emphysema diffusion reduced disease lungs people feel weak
• Explain terms pressure semilunar valves open.  mark greater
• Alveoli reduced diffusion elastin emphysema reduces efficiency gas
• Chambers human heart pressure reach highest mark left
• Pressure air lungs thorax explain downward movement diaphragm
• Describe oxygen air alveoli enters blood capillaries marks
• Exchange efficient substances capillaries linked rate blood flow
• Quaternary structure haemoglobin explain meant mark polypeptide chain
• Increase curve respiration tissues mammal affects oxygen dissociation
• People living high altitudes red blood cells sea
• Blood give pulmonary artery aorta mark deoxygenated/less pressure
• Structure give ways artery vein marks thick muscular
• Explain vein organ made tissues/specified tissues
• Blood describe increase pressure artery results events cardiac
• Pressure fibres artery elastin wall smooth flow blood
• Diffusion rate explain structure capillaries related function walls

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